1
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Chong KL, Grahn A, Perl CD, Sumner-Rooney L. Allometry and ecology shape eye size evolution in spiders. Curr Biol 2024; 34:3178-3188.e5. [PMID: 38959880 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Eye size affects many aspects of visual function, but eyes are costly to grow and maintain. The allometry of eyes can provide insight into this trade-off, but this has mainly been explored in species that have two eyes of equal size. By contrast, animals possessing larger visual systems can exhibit variable eye sizes within individuals. Spiders have up to four pairs of eyes whose sizes vary dramatically, but their ontogenetic, static, and evolutionary allometry has not yet been studied in a comparative context. We report variable dynamics in eye size across 1,098 individuals in 39 species and 8 families, indicating selective pressures and constraints driving the evolution of different eye pairs and lineages. Supplementing our sampling with a recently published phylogenetically comprehensive dataset, we confirmed these findings across more than 400 species; found that ecological factors such as visual hunting, web building, and circadian activity correlate with eye diameter; and identified significant allometric shifts across spider phylogeny using an unbiased approach, many of which coincide with visual hunting strategies. The modular nature of the spider visual system provides additional degrees of freedom and is apparent in the strong correlations between maximum/minimum investment and interocular variance and three key ecological factors. Our analyses suggest an antagonistic relationship between the anterior and posterior eye pairs. These findings shed light on the relationship between spider visual systems and their diverse ecologies and how spiders exploit their modular visual systems to balance selective pressures and optical and energetic constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaylin L Chong
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; Oxford University Museum of Natural History, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PW, UK.
| | - Angelique Grahn
- Institut für Biologie, Humboldt Universität, Invalidenstrasse 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Craig D Perl
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA
| | - Lauren Sumner-Rooney
- Oxford University Museum of Natural History, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PW, UK.
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2
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Liu Z, Zhan W, Liu X, Zhu Y, Qi M, Leng J, Wei L, Han S, Wu X, Yan X. A wireless controlled robotic insect with ultrafast untethered running speeds. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3815. [PMID: 38719823 PMCID: PMC11078929 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47812-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Running speed degradation of insect-scale (less than 5 cm) legged microrobots after carrying payloads has become a bottleneck for microrobots to achieve high untethered locomotion performance. In this work, we present a 2-cm legged microrobot (BHMbot, BeiHang Microrobot) with ultrafast untethered running speeds, which is facilitated by the complementary combination of bouncing length and bouncing frequency in the microrobot's running gait. The untethered BHMbot (2-cm-long, 1760 mg) can achieve a running speed of 17.5 BL s-1 and a turning centripetal acceleration of 65.4 BL s-2 at a Cost of Transport of 303.7 and a power consumption of 1.77 W. By controlling its two front legs independently, the BHMbot demonstrates various locomotion trajectories including circles, rectangles, letters and irregular paths across obstacles through a wireless control module. Such advancements enable the BHMbot to carry out application attempts including sound signal detection, locomotion inside a turbofan engine and transportation via a quadrotor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Liu
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Aero-Engine, Beijing, China
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Aero-Engine Aero-thermodynamics, Beijing, China
- Research Institute of Aero-Engine, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Wencheng Zhan
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Aero-Engine Structure and Strength, Beijing, China
| | - Xinyi Liu
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Yangsheng Zhu
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Mingjing Qi
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Aero-Engine, Beijing, China
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Aero-Engine Aero-thermodynamics, Beijing, China
- Research Institute of Aero-Engine, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaming Leng
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Aero-Engine, Beijing, China
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Aero-Engine Aero-thermodynamics, Beijing, China
- Research Institute of Aero-Engine, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Lizhao Wei
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Shousheng Han
- School of Integrated Circuits, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoming Wu
- School of Integrated Circuits, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
| | - Xiaojun Yan
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China.
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Aero-Engine, Beijing, China.
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Aero-Engine Aero-thermodynamics, Beijing, China.
- Research Institute of Aero-Engine, Beihang University, Beijing, China.
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3
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Ke X, Yong H, Xu F, Ding H, Wu Z. Stenus-inspired, swift, and agile untethered insect-scale soft propulsors. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1491. [PMID: 38374180 PMCID: PMC10876683 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45997-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Mimicking living creatures, soft robots exhibit incomparable adaptability and various attractive new features. However, untethered insect-scale soft robots are often plagued with inferior controllability and low kinetic performance. Systematically inspired by the swift swingable abdomen, conducting canals for secretion transport, and body setae of Stenus comma, together with magnetic-induced fast-transformed postures, herein, we present a swift, agile untethered millimetre-scale soft propulsor propelling on water. The demonstrated propulsor, with a body length (BL) of 3.6 mm, achieved a recorded specific speed of ~201 BL/s and acceleration of ~8,372 BL/s2. The comprehensive kinetic performance of this propulsor surpasses those of previous ones at similar scales by several orders. Notably, we discovered momentum-transfer-induced over-biological on-demand braking (deceleration ~-5,010 BL/s2) and elucidated the underlying hydrodynamics. This work offers new insights into systematically bio-inspired artificial insect-scale soft robots, enabling them to push boundaries in performance, and potentially revolutionizing robot design, optimization, and control paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingxing Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Haochen Yong
- State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Fukang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Han Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Zhigang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China.
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4
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Kelly MBJ, Khan MK, Wierucka K, Jones BR, Shofner R, Derkarabetian S, Wolff JO. Dynamic evolution of locomotor performance independent of changes in extended phenotype use in spiders. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20232035. [PMID: 37876190 PMCID: PMC10598421 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.2035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Many animals use self-built structures (extended phenotypes) to enhance body functions, such as thermoregulation, prey capture or defence. Yet, it is unclear whether the evolution of animal constructions supplements or substitutes body functions-with disparate feedbacks on trait evolution. Here, using brown spiders (Araneae: marronoid clade), we explored if the evolutionary loss and gain of silken webs as extended prey capture devices correlates with alterations in traits known to play an important role in predatory strikes-locomotor performance (sprint speed) and leg spination (expression of capture spines on front legs). We found that in this group high locomotor performance, with running speeds of over 100 body lengths per second, evolved repeatedly-both in web-building and cursorial spiders. There was no correlation with running speed, and leg spination only poorly correlated, relative to the use of extended phenotypes, indicating that web use does not reduce selective pressures on body functions involved in prey capture and defence per se. Consequently, extended prey capture devices serve as supplements rather than substitutions to body traits and may only be beneficial in conjunction with certain life-history traits, possibly explaining the rare evolution and repeated loss of trapping strategies in predatory animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B. J. Kelly
- Evolutionary Biomechanics, Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Strasse 26, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Md Kawsar Khan
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 1-3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Kaja Wierucka
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
- Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center - Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Braxton R. Jones
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Ryan Shofner
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences E26, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Shahan Derkarabetian
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Jonas O. Wolff
- Evolutionary Biomechanics, Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Strasse 26, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
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5
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Crews SC. But wait, there’s more! Descriptions of new species and undescribed sexes of flattie spiders (Araneae, Selenopidae, Karaops) from Australia. Zookeys 2023; 1150:1-189. [DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.1150.93760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Nineteen new species of Karaops are described: K. durrantorumsp. nov. (♂), K. morganoconnellisp. nov. (♀♂), K. joehaenerisp. nov. (♀), K. dalmanyisp. nov. (♀♂), K. garyodwyerisp. nov. (♂), K. dejongisp. nov. (♀♂), K. malumbusp. nov. (♀♂), K. conilurussp. nov. (♂), K. yumbubaarnjisp. nov. (♀♂), K. markharveyisp. nov. (♀♂), K. nitmiluksp. nov. (♀), K. kennerleyorumsp. nov. (♂), K. jawaywaysp. nov. (♀), K. mparntwesp. nov. (♀), K. larapintasp. nov. (♀), K. kwartatumasp. nov. (♂), K. madhawundusp. nov. (♀), and K. mareebasp. nov. (♀). The male of K. umiida Crews, 2013 was found to be misidentified and is now K. conilurussp. nov.Karaops yindjibarndisyn. nov. is a new synonym of K. nyiyaparli. Selenops australiensis L. Koch, 1875 is considered a nomen dubium because the holotype is an immature male, and the species previously referred to as K. australiensis (L. Koch, 1875) is here described as K. strayamatesp. nov. (♀♂). The males of K. marrayagong Crews & Harvey, 2011 and K. banyjima Crews, 2013 are described for the first time. To manage the growing diversity of the genus, most of the species have been placed in species groups, which are diagnosed. They are the Central Desert group, the strayamate group, the raveni group, the dawara group, the francesae group, the Kimberley group, and the Pilbara-Gascoyne group. New keys are provided to accommodate the new species, and new distribution maps and new records are provided for all species. Diagnoses and descriptions are emended where required. Images of live spiders, many not previously seen alive, and natural history information are also provided.
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6
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Liang J, Wu Y, Yim JK, Chen H, Miao Z, Liu H, Liu Y, Liu Y, Wang D, Qiu W, Shao Z, Zhang M, Wang X, Zhong J, Lin L. Electrostatic footpads enable agile insect-scale soft robots with trajectory control. Sci Robot 2021; 6:6/55/eabe7906. [PMID: 34193563 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abe7906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Agility and trajectory control are two desirable features for robotics, but they become very challenging for soft robots without rigid structures to support rapid manipulations. Here, a curved piezoelectric thin film driven at its structural resonant frequency is used as the main body of an insect-scale soft robot for its fast translational movements, and two electrostatic footpads are used for its swift rotational motions. These two schemes are simultaneously executed during operations through a simple two-wire connection arrangement. A high relative centripetal acceleration of 28 body length per square second compared with existing robots is realized on a 65-milligram tethered prototype, which is better than those of common insects, including the cockroach. The trajectory manipulation demonstration is accomplished by navigating the robot to pass through a 120-centimeter-long track in a maze within 5.6 seconds. One potential application is presented by carrying a 180-milligram on-board sensor to record a gas concentration route map and to identify the location of the leakage source. The radically simplified analog motion adjustment technique enables the scale-up construction of a 240-milligram untethered robot. Equipped with a payload of 1660 milligrams to include the control circuit, a battery, and photoresistors, the untethered prototype can follow a designated, 27.9-centimeter-long "S"-shaped path in 36.9 seconds. These results validate key performance attributes in achieving both high mobility and agility to emulate living agile insects for the advancements of soft robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaming Liang
- Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China.,Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Yichuan Wu
- School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China
| | - Justin K Yim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15289, USA
| | - Huimin Chen
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Zicong Miao
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Hanxiao Liu
- Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China.,Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Ying Liu
- Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Yixin Liu
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Dongkai Wang
- Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China.,Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Wenying Qiu
- Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China.,Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Zhichun Shao
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Min Zhang
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Xiaohao Wang
- Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China.,Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Junwen Zhong
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. .,Department of Electromechanical Engineering, Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics, University of Macau, Macao 999078, China
| | - Liwei Lin
- Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China. .,Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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7
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Hurst JA, Rayor LS. Effects on running speed of changes in sexual size dimorphism at maturity on in the cursorial huntsman spider, Delena cancerides (Sparassidae). J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2021; 207:269-277. [PMID: 33743054 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-021-01469-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Running speed is a measure of whole-organism performance reflecting relative fitness. For spiders, increased speed translates into enhanced prey capture, mating success and reduced predation risk. In male spiders, leg length increases dramatically with the molt to sexual maturity. To determine how changes in leg length and body mass with sexual maturity influence running performance, we compared allometric and kinematic changes in a species without extreme size sexual dimorphism (SSD): male and female Delena cancerides (Sparassidae) during their penultimate and adult instars. Spiders in each age-sex class were filmed running in the lab, and body morphometrics, maximum velocity, body lengths per second, acceleration, stride length and stride frequency were compared. At maturity, females increase in overall size, whereas male's leg length increases over 30% with little associated increase in body mass or overall size. Adult male legs are similar in length to those of the adult females and maximum velocity did not differ between age-sex classes. However, both male age-classes have higher velocity scaled as body lengths per second than females, due to their lighter mass. Thus, for sparassids spiders without large SSD, lower mass and longer legs translate into lower energetic costs of running distances for males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Hurst
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.,Department of Plant Science, California State University, Fresno, CA, 93740, USA
| | - Linda S Rayor
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
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8
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Brandt EE, Sasiharan Y, Elias DO, Mhatre N. Jump takeoff in a small jumping spider. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2021; 207:153-164. [PMID: 33712882 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-021-01473-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Jumping in animals presents an interesting locomotory strategy as it requires the generation of large forces and accurate timing. Jumping in arachnids is further complicated by their semi-hydraulic locomotion system. Among arachnids, jumping spiders (Family Salticidae) are agile and dexterous jumpers. However, less is known about jumping in small salticid species. Here we used Habronattus conjunctus, a small jumping spider (body length ~ 4.5 mm) to examine its jumping performance and compare it to that of other jumping spiders and insects. We also explored how legs are used during the takeoff phase of jumps. Jumps were staged between two raised platforms. We analyzed jumping videos with DeepLabCut to track 21 points on the cephalothorax, abdomen, and legs. By analyzing leg liftoff and extension patterns, we found evidence that H. conjunctus primarily uses the third legs to power jumps. We also found that H. conjunctus jumps achieve lower takeoff speeds and accelerations than most other jumping arthropods, including other jumping spiders. Habronattus conjunctus takeoff time was similar to other jumping arthropods of the same body mass. We discuss the mechanical benefits and drawbacks of a semi-hydraulic system of locomotion and consider how small spiders may extract dexterous jumps from this locomotor system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin E Brandt
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, USA. .,Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
| | - Yoshan Sasiharan
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Damian O Elias
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, USA
| | - Natasha Mhatre
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
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9
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Wolff JO. Locomotion and kinematics of arachnids. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2021; 207:99-103. [PMID: 33738532 PMCID: PMC8046687 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-021-01478-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A basic feature of animals is the capability to move and disperse. Arachnids are one of the oldest lineages of terrestrial animals and characterized by an octopodal locomotor apparatus with hydraulic limb extension. Their locomotion repertoire includes running, climbing, jumping, but also swimming, diving, abseiling, rolling, gliding and -passively- even flying. Studying the unique locomotor functions and movement ecology of arachnids is important for an integrative understanding of the ecology and evolution of this diverse and ubiquitous animal group. Beyond biology, arachnid locomotion is inspiring robotic engineers. The aim of this special issue is to display the state of the interdisciplinary research on arachnid locomotion, linking physiology and biomechanics with ecology, ethology and evolutionary biology. It comprises five reviews and ten original research reports covering diverse topics, ranging from the neurophysiology of arachnid movement, the allometry and sexual dimorphism of running kinematics, the effect of autotomy or heavy body parts on locomotor efficiency, and the evolution of silk-spinning choreography, to the biophysics of ballooning and ballistic webs. This closes a significant gap in the literature on animal biomechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas O Wolff
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Str. 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany.
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.
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10
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Giant steps: adhesion and locomotion in theraphosid tarantulas. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2021; 207:179-190. [PMID: 33386944 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-020-01456-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Theraphosid tarantulas are large spiders that bear dense hairy adhesive pads on the distal parts of their legs: scopula and claw tufts. These structures allow them to climb on vertical smooth surfaces and contribute to prey capture. While adult females and juveniles remain most of the time in their burrows, adult males actively walk searching for females during the reproductive period. Adhesion and locomotion thus play important roles in the ecology and reproduction of these animals. In this paper, we review the current state of the knowledge on adhesion and locomotion in tarantulas, focusing on functional and evolutionary morphology.
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11
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Hao X, Ma W, Liu C, Qian Z, Ren L, Ren L. Locomotor mechanism of Haplopelma hainanum based on energy conservation analysis. Biol Open 2020; 9:bio055301. [PMID: 33148608 PMCID: PMC7746670 DOI: 10.1242/bio.055301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Spiders use their special hydraulic system to achieve superior locomotor performance and high drive efficiency. To evaluate the variation in hydraulic joint angles and energy conversion during the hydraulic drive of spiders, kinematic data of Haplopelma hainanum were collected through a 3D motion capture and synchronization analysis system. Complete stride datasets in the speed range of 0.027 to 0.691 m s-1 were analyzed. Taking the tibia-metatarsu joint as an example, it was found that speed did not affect the angle variation range of the hydraulic joint. Based on the analysis of locomotor mechanics, a bouncing gait was mainly used by H. hainanum during terrestrial locomotion and their locomotor mechanism did not change with increasing speed. Because of the spiders' hydraulic system, the mass-specific power per unit weight required to move the center of mass increased exponentially with increasing speed. The bouncing gait and the hydraulic system contributed to the lower transport cost at low speed, while the hydraulic system greatly increased the transport cost at high speed. The results of this study could provide a reference for the design of high-efficiency driving hydraulic systems of spider-like robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Hao
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Wenxing Ma
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Chunbao Liu
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Zhihui Qian
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Luquan Ren
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Lei Ren
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
- School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
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12
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Analysis of Spiders' Joint Kinematics and Driving Modes under Different Ground Conditions. Appl Bionics Biomech 2020; 2019:4617212. [PMID: 31929827 PMCID: PMC6935789 DOI: 10.1155/2019/4617212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the hydraulic transmission system in spider legs is well known, the spider's mechanism of locomotion during different terrain conditions still need to be explored further. In this study, spider locomotion was observed in detail on three pavement test platforms: horizontal hard pavement, horizontal soft pavement, and sloped soft pavement. The movement characteristics and joint kinematics of Grammostola rosea legs were captured by high-speed cameras and Simi Motion 3D tracking software. These observations showed that the gait pattern was basically consistent with an alternating tetrapod gait; however, the pattern observed on the sloped soft pavement was slightly different from that of the two horizontal pavements. In particular, the duty factor of the spiders was 0.683 when walking on the horizontal hard pavement, 0.668 on the horizontal soft pavement, and 0.630 on the sloped soft pavement. The duty factor was greater than 60% in all three pavement environments, which was minimal when walking on the sloped soft pavement. This pattern showed that spiders might have superior stability when walking, but their stability decreased in the sloped soft pavement environment. The ranges of joint angles through the spiders' gait cycles in every pavement environment were also analysed and compared. The findings showed that the hydraulically driven femur-patella and tibia-metatarsal joint angles varied widely, which confirmed that hydraulically driven joints had major functions and obvious effects on the walking process. The kinematic patterns identified in this study provide improved understanding of the hydraulic transmission mechanisms, the factors that affect motion stability, and the design of biomimetic systems.
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Silva-Pereyra V, Fábrica CG, Biancardi CM, Pérez-Miles F. Kinematics of male Eupalaestrus weijenberghi (Araneae, Theraphosidae) locomotion on different substrates and inclines. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7748. [PMID: 31579616 PMCID: PMC6766366 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mechanics and energetics of spider locomotion have not been deeply investigated, despite their importance in the life of a spider. For example, the reproductive success of males of several species is dependent upon their ability to move from one area to another. The aim of this work was to describe gait patterns and analyze the gait parameters of Eupalaestrus weijenberghi (Araneae, Theraphosidae) in order to investigate the mechanics of their locomotion and the mechanisms by which they conserve energy while traversing different inclinations and surfaces. METHODS Tarantulas were collected and marked for kinematic analysis. Free displacements, both level and on an incline, were recorded using glass and Teflon as experimental surfaces. Body segments of the experimental animals were measured, weighed, and their center of mass was experimentally determined. Through reconstruction of the trajectories of the body segments, we were able to estimate their internal and external mechanical work and analyze their gait patterns. RESULTS Spiders mainly employed a walk-trot gait. Significant differences between the first two pairs and the second two pairs were detected. No significant differences were detected regarding the different planes or surfaces with respect to duty factor, time lags, stride frequency, and stride length. However, postural changes were observed on slippery surfaces. The mechanical work required for traversing a level plane was lower than expected. In all conditions, the external work, and within it the vertical work, accounted for almost all of the total mechanical work. The internal work was extremely low and did not rise as the gradient increased. DISCUSSION Our results support the idea of considering the eight limbs functionally divided into two quadrupeds in series. The anterior was composed of the first two pairs of limbs, which have an explorative and steering purpose and the posterior was more involved in supporting the weight of the body. The mechanical work to move one unit of mass a unit distance is almost constant among the different species tested. However, spiders showed lower values than expected. Minimizing the mechanical work could help to limit metabolic energy expenditure that, in small animals, is relatively very high. However, energy recovery due to inverted pendulum mechanics only accounts for only a small fraction of the energy saved. Adhesive setae present in the tarsal, scopulae, and claw tufts could contribute in different ways during different moments of the step cycle, compensating for part of the energetic cost on gradients which could also help to maintain constant gait parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Silva-Pereyra
- Unidad de Investigación en Biomecánica de la Locomoción Humana, Departamento de Biofísica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - C Gabriel Fábrica
- Unidad de Investigación en Biomecánica de la Locomoción Humana, Departamento de Biofísica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Carlo M. Biancardi
- Laboratorio de Biomecánica y Análisis del Movimiento, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Centro Universitario Regional Litoral Norte, Universidad de la República, Paysandú, Uruguay
| | - Fernando Pérez-Miles
- Sección Entomología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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Zamani A, Crews SC. The flattie spider family Selenopidae (Araneae) in the Middle East. ZOOLOGY IN THE MIDDLE EAST 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/09397140.2018.1540150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Zamani
- School of Biology, College of Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sarah C. Crews
- Department of Entomology, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California, USA
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Wilshin S, Shamble PS, Hovey KJ, Harris R, Spence AJ, Hsieh ST. Limping following limb loss increases locomotor stability. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:jeb.174268. [PMID: 30072386 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.174268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Although many arthropods have the ability to voluntarily lose limbs, how these animals rapidly adapt to such an extreme perturbation remains poorly understood. It is thought that moving with certain gaits can enable efficient, stable locomotion; however, switching gaits requires complex information flow between and coordination of an animal's limbs. We show here that upon losing two legs, spiders can switch to a novel, more statically stable gait, or use temporal adjustments without a gait change. The resulting gaits have higher overall static stability than the gaits that would be imposed by limb loss. By decreasing the time spent in a low-stability configuration - effectively 'limping' over less-stable phases of the stride - spiders increased the overall stability of the less statically stable gait with no observable reduction in speed, as compared with the intact condition. Our results shed light on how voluntary limb loss could have persisted evolutionarily among many animals, and provide bioinspired solutions for robots when they break or lose limbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Wilshin
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Paul S Shamble
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - Kyle J Hovey
- Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA.,Department of Biology, John Carroll University, Cleveland, OH 44118, USA
| | - Ryan Harris
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Andrew J Spence
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - S Tonia Hsieh
- Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
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Energy and time optimal trajectories in exploratory jumps of the spider Phidippus regius. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7142. [PMID: 29739977 PMCID: PMC5940701 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25227-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Jumping spiders are proficient jumpers that use jumps in a variety of behavioural contexts. We use high speed, high resolution video to measure the kinematics of a single regal jumping spider for a total of 15 different tasks based on a horizontal gap of 2–5 body lengths and vertical gap of +/−2 body lengths. For short range jumps, we show that low angled trajectories are used that minimise flight time. For longer jumps, take-off angles are steeper and closer to the optimum for minimum energy cost of transport. Comparison of jump performance against other arthropods shows that Phidippus regius is firmly in the group of animals that use dynamic muscle contraction for actuation as opposed to a stored energy catapult system. We find that the jump power requirements can be met from the estimated mass of leg muscle; hydraulic augmentation may be present but appears not to be energetically essential.
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Knight K. Splayed legs allow flattie spiders to turn in the blink of an eye. J Exp Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.177634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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