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Agbeti WEK, Palstra AP, Black S, Magnoni L, Lankheet M, Komen H. Swimming at Increasing Speeds in Steady and Unsteady Flows of Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar: Oxygen Consumption, Locomotory Behaviour and Overall Dynamic Body Acceleration. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:393. [PMID: 38927273 PMCID: PMC11200746 DOI: 10.3390/biology13060393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
The swimming performance of cultured finfish species is typically studied under steady flow conditions. However, flow conditions are mostly unsteady, for instance, as experienced in sea pens in exposed sea areas. Using a Loligo swim tunnel, we investigated the effects of swimming in steady and unsteady flows at increasing swimming speeds on post-smolt Atlantic salmon. Oxygen consumption (MO2), locomotory behaviour, and overall dynamic body acceleration (ODBA), as determined with implanted acoustic sensor tags, were compared between both flow conditions. Results were obtained for mean swimming speeds of 0.2 to 0.8 m.s-1 under both flow conditions. Sensor tags that were implanted in the abdominal cavity had no significant effects on MO2 and locomotory parameters. The MO2 of fish swimming in unsteady flows was significantly higher (15-53%) than when swimming in steady flows (p < 0.05). Significant interaction effects of ODBA with flow conditions and swimming speed were found. ODBA was strongly and positively correlated with swimming speed and MO2 in unsteady flow (R2 = 0.94 and R2 = 0.93, respectively) and in steady flow (R2 = 0.91 and R2 = 0.82, respectively). ODBA predicts MO2 well over the investigated range of swimming speeds in both flow conditions. In an unsteady flow condition, ODBA increased twice as fast with MO2 compared with steady flow conditions (p < 0.05). From these results, we can conclude that (1) swimming in unsteady flow is energetically more costly for post-smolt Atlantic salmon than swimming in steady flow, as indicated by higher MO2, and (2) ODBA can be used to estimate the oxygen consumption of post-smolt Atlantic salmon in unsteady flow in swim tunnels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wisdom E. K. Agbeti
- Animal Breeding and Genomics, Wageningen University & Research, 6700AH Wageningen, The Netherlands; (A.P.P.); (H.K.)
- Seafood Technologies, The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Nelson 7043, New Zealand; (S.B.); (L.M.)
| | - Arjan P. Palstra
- Animal Breeding and Genomics, Wageningen University & Research, 6700AH Wageningen, The Netherlands; (A.P.P.); (H.K.)
| | - Suzy Black
- Seafood Technologies, The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Nelson 7043, New Zealand; (S.B.); (L.M.)
| | - Leonardo Magnoni
- Seafood Technologies, The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Nelson 7043, New Zealand; (S.B.); (L.M.)
| | - Martin Lankheet
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University & Research, 6700AH Wageningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Hans Komen
- Animal Breeding and Genomics, Wageningen University & Research, 6700AH Wageningen, The Netherlands; (A.P.P.); (H.K.)
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Suriyampola PS, Zúñiga-Vega JJ, Jayasundara N, Flores J, Lopez M, Bhat A, Martins EP. River zebrafish combine behavioral plasticity and generalized morphology with specialized sensory and metabolic physiology to survive in a challenging environment. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16398. [PMID: 37773260 PMCID: PMC10541436 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-42829-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Phenotypes that allow animals to detect, weather, and predict changes efficiently are essential for survival in fluctuating environments. Some phenotypes may remain specialized to suit an environment perfectly, while others become more plastic or generalized, shifting flexibly to match current context or adopting a form that can utilize a wide range of contexts. Here, we tested the differences in behavior, morphology, sensory and metabolic physiology between wild zebrafish (Danio rerio) in highly variable fast-flowing rivers and still-water sites. We found that river zebrafish moved at higher velocities than did still-water fish, had lower oxygen demands, and responded less vigorously to small changes in flow rate, as we might expect for fish that are well-suited to high-flow environments. River zebrafish also had less streamlined bodies and were more behaviorally plastic than were still-water zebrafish, both features that may make them better-suited to a transitional lifestyle. Our results suggest that zebrafish use distinct sensory mechanisms and metabolic physiology to reduce energetic costs of living in fast-flowing water while relying on morphology and behavior to create flexible solutions to a challenging habitat. Insights on animals' reliance on traits with different outcomes provide a framework to better understand their survival in future environmental fluctuations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - José Jaime Zúñiga-Vega
- Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Jennifer Flores
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA
| | - Melissa Lopez
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA
| | - Anuradha Bhat
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research-Kolkata, Mohanpur, 741246, India
| | - Emília P Martins
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA
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3
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Roche DG. Effects of wave-driven water flow on the fast-start escape response of juvenile coral reef damselfishes. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb.234351. [PMID: 33602678 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.234351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Fish often evade predators with a fast-start escape response. Studies typically examine this behaviour in still water despite water motion being an inherent feature of aquatic ecosystems. In shallow habitats, waves create complex flows that likely influence escape performance, particularly in small fishes with low absolute swimming speeds relative to environmental flows. I examined how wave-driven water flow affects the behaviour and kinematics of escape responses in juveniles of three coral reef damselfishes (Pomacentridae) with different body morphologies. Tropical damselfishes have similar fin and body shapes during early development, with the exception of body depth, a trait deemed important for postural control and stability. Wave-driven flow increased response latency in two of the three species tested: fish with a fusiform body responded 2.9 times slower in wave-driven flow than in still water, whereas this difference was less pronounced in fish with an intermediate body depth (1.9 times slower response) and absent in fish with a laterally compressed body. The effect of wave-driven flow on swimming performance (cumulative escape distance and turning rate) was variable and depended on the timing and trajectory of escape responses in relation to the wave phase. Given intense predation pressure on juvenile coral reef fishes during settlement, interspecific differences in how wave-driven flow affects their ability to escape predators could influence the distribution and abundance of species across spatial and temporal scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique G Roche
- Division of Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
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Tian G, Fan D, Feng X, Zhou H. Thriving artificial underwater drag-reduction materials inspired from aquatic animals: progresses and challenges. RSC Adv 2021; 11:3399-3428. [PMID: 35424313 PMCID: PMC8694127 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra08672j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past decades, drag-reduction surfaces have attracted more and more attention due to their potentiality and wide applications in various fields such as traffic, energy transportation, agriculture, textile industry, and military. However, there are still some drag-reduction materials that need to be deeply explored. Fortunately, natural creatures always have the best properties after long-term evolution; aquatic organisms have diversified surface microstructures and drag-reducing materials, which provide design templates for the development of thriving artificial underwater drag-reduction materials. Aquatic animals are tamed by the current while fighting against the water, and thus have excellent drag reduction that is unparalleled in water. Inspired by biological principles, using aquatic animals as a bionic object to develop and reduce frictional resistance in fluids has attracted more attention in the past few years. More and more aquatic animals bring new inspiration for drag-reduction surfaces and a tremendous amount of research effort has been put into the study of surface drag-reduction, with an aim to seek the surface structure with the best drag-reduction effect and explore the drag-reduction mechanism. This present paper reviews the research on drag-reduction surfaces inspired by aquatic animals, including sharks, dolphins, and other aquatic animals. Aquatic animals as bionic objects are described in detail, with a discussion on the drag-reduction mechanism and drag-reduction effect to understand the development of underwater drag-reduction fully. In bionic manufacturing, the effective combination of various preparation methods is summarized. Moreover, bionic surfaces are briefly explained in terms of traffic, energy sources, sports, and agriculture. In the end, both existing problems in bionic research and future research prospects are proposed. This paper may provide a better and more comprehensive understanding of the current research status of aquatic animals-inspired drag reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guizhong Tian
- College of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing for Marine Mechanical Equipment, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology Zhenjiang P. R. China
| | - Dongliang Fan
- College of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing for Marine Mechanical Equipment, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology Zhenjiang P. R. China
| | - Xiaoming Feng
- College of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing for Marine Mechanical Equipment, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology Zhenjiang P. R. China
| | - Honggen Zhou
- College of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing for Marine Mechanical Equipment, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology Zhenjiang P. R. China
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Illing B, Severati A, Hochen J, Boyd P, Raison P, Mather R, Downie AT, Rummer JL, Kroon FJ, Humphrey C. Automated flow control of a multi-lane swimming chamber for small fishes indicates species-specific sensitivity to experimental protocols. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 9:coaa131. [PMID: 33659062 PMCID: PMC7905161 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coaa131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
In fishes, swimming performance is considered an important metric to measure fitness, dispersal and migratory abilities. The swimming performance of individual larval fishes is often integrated into models to make inferences on how environmental parameters affect population-level dynamics (e.g. connectivity). However, little information exists regarding how experimental protocols affect the swimming performance of marine fish larvae. In addition, the technical setups used to measure larval fish swimming performance often lack automation and accurate control of water quality parameters and flow velocity. In this study, we automated the control of multi-lane swimming chambers for small fishes by developing an open-source algorithm. This automation allowed us to execute repeatable flow scenarios and reduce operator interference and inaccuracies in flow velocity typically associated with manual control. Furthermore, we made structural modifications to a prior design to reduce the areas of lower flow velocity. We then validated the flow dynamics of the new chambers using computational fluid dynamics and particle-tracking software. The algorithm provided an accurate alignment between the set and measured flow velocities and we used it to test whether faster critical swimming speed (U crit) protocols (i.e. shorter time intervals and higher velocity increments) would increase U crit of early life stages of two tropical fish species [4-10-mm standard length (SL)]. The U crit of barramundi (Lates calcarifer) and cinnamon anemonefish (Amphiprion melanopus) increased linearly with fish length, but in cinnamon anemonefish, U crit started to decrease upon metamorphosis. Swimming protocols using longer time intervals (more than 2.5 times increase) negatively affected U crit in cinnamon anemonefish but not in barramundi. These species-specific differences in swimming performance highlight the importance of testing suitable U crit protocols prior to experimentation. The automated control of flow velocity will create more accurate and repeatable data on swimming performance of larval fishes. Integrating refined measurements into individual-based models will support future research on the effects of environmental change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Illing
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, 1 James Cook Drive, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Andrea Severati
- National Sea Simulator, Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia
| | - Justin Hochen
- National Sea Simulator, Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia
| | - Paul Boyd
- National Sea Simulator, Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia
| | - Paulin Raison
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, School of Engineering, Route Cantonale, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Rachel Mather
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, 1 James Cook Drive, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Adam T Downie
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, 1 James Cook Drive, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Jodie L Rummer
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, 1 James Cook Drive, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Frederieke J Kroon
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia
- Division of Research and Innovation, James Cook University, 1 James Cook Drive, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Craig Humphrey
- National Sea Simulator, Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia
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Luongo SM, Ruth A, Gervais CR, Korsmeyer KE, Johansen JL, Domenici P, Steffensen JF. Bidirectional cyclical flows increase energetic costs of station holding for a labriform swimming fish, Cymatogaster aggregata. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 8:coaa077. [PMID: 32843970 PMCID: PMC7439584 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coaa077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Wave-induced surge conditions are found in shallow marine ecosystems worldwide; yet, few studies have quantified how cyclical surges may affect free swimming animals. Here, we used a recently adapted respirometry technique to compare the energetic costs of a temperate fish species (Cymatogaster aggregata) swimming against a steady flow versus cyclical unidirectional and bidirectional surges in which unsteady swimming (such as accelerating, decelerating and turning) occurs. Using oxygen uptake (ṀO2) as an estimate of energetic costs, our results reveal that fish swimming in an unsteady (i.e. cyclical) unidirectional flow showed no clear increase in costs when compared to a steady flow of the same average speed, suggesting that costs and savings from cyclical acceleration and coasting are near equal. Conversely, swimming in a bidirectional cyclical flow incurred significantly higher energetic costs relative to a steady, constant flow, likely due to the added cost of turning around to face the changing flow direction. On average, we observed a 50% increase in ṀO2 of fish station holding within the bidirectional flow (227.8 mg O2 kg-1 h-1) compared to a steady, constant flow (136.1 mg O2 kg-1 h-1) of the same mean velocity. Given wave-driven surge zones are prime fish habitats in the wild, we suggest the additional costs fish incur by station holding in a bidirectional cyclical flow must be offset by favourable conditions for foraging and reproduction. With current and future increases in abiotic stressors associated with climate change, we highlight the importance of incorporating additional costs associated with swimming in cyclical water flow in the construction of energy budgets for species living in dynamic, coastal habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Luongo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, 3000 N.E. 151st Street, North Miami, FL, 33181, USA
| | - Andreas Ruth
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, DK-3000, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Connor R Gervais
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Balaclava Rd, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Keith E Korsmeyer
- Department of Natural Sciences, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Hawaii Pacific University, 1 Aloha Tower Drive, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
| | - Jacob L Johansen
- Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 46-007 Lilipuna Rd, Kaneohe, HI 96744, USA
| | - Paolo Domenici
- CNR–IAS, Località Sa Mardini, 09072, Torregrande, Oristano, Italy
| | - John F Steffensen
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, DK-3000, Helsingør, Denmark
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7
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Cordero GA, Methling C, Tirsgaard B, Steffensen JF, Domenici P, Svendsen JC. Excess postexercise oxygen consumption decreases with swimming duration in a labriform fish: Integrating aerobic and anaerobic metabolism across time. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2019; 331:577-586. [PMID: 31692282 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Many vertebrate animals employ anaerobic pathways during high-speed exercise, even if it imposes an energetic cost during postexercise recovery, expressed as excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC). In ectotherms such a fish, the initial anaerobic contribution to exercise is often substantial. Even so, fish may recover from anaerobic pathways as swimming exercise ensues and aerobic metabolism stabilizes, thus total energetic costs of exercise could depend on swimming duration and subsequent physiological recovery. To test this hypothesis, we examined EPOC in striped surfperch (Embiotoca lateralis) that swam at high speeds (3.25 L s-1 ) during randomly ordered 2-, 5-, 10-, and 20-min exercise periods. We found that EPOC was highest after the 2-min period (20.9 mg O2 kg-1 ) and lowest after the 20-min period (13.6 mg O2 kg-1 ), indicating that recovery from anaerobic pathways improved with exercise duration. Remarkably, EPOC for the 2-min period accounted for 72% of the total O2 consumption, whereas EPOC for the 20-min period only accounted for 14%. Thus, the data revealed a striking decline in the total cost of transport from 0.772 to 0.226 mg O2 ·kg-1 ·m-1 during 2- and 20-min periods, respectively. Our study is the first to combine anaerobic and aerobic swimming costs to demonstrate an effect of swimming duration on EPOC in fish. Clarifying the dynamic nature of exercise-related costs is relevant to extrapolating laboratory findings to animals in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo A Cordero
- Department of Geosciences, Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Caroline Methling
- National Institute of Aquatic Resources (DTU-Aqua), Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Bjørn Tirsgaard
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - John F Steffensen
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Paolo Domenici
- CNR-IAMC, Instituto per l'Ambiente Marino Costiero, Torregrande, Oristano, Italy
| | - Jon C Svendsen
- National Institute of Aquatic Resources (DTU-Aqua), Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
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