Multiple optic gland signaling pathways implicated in octopus maternal behaviors and death

Developmental gene expression in the eyes of the pygmy squid Xipholeptos notoides

The eyes of squids, octopuses, and cuttlefish are a textbook example for evolutionary convergence, due to their striking similarity to those of vertebrates. For this reason, studies on cephalopod photoreception and vision are of importance for a broader audience. Previous studies showed that genes such as pax6, or certain opsin-encoding genes, are evolutionarily highly conserved and play similar roles during ontogenesis in remotely related bilaterians. In this study, genes that encode photosensitive proteins and Reflectins are identified and characterized. The expression patterns of rhodopsin, xenopsin, retinochrome, and two reflectin genes have been visualized in developing embryos of the pygmy squid Xipholeptos notoides by in situ hybridization experiments. Rhodopsin is not only expressed in the retina of X. notoides but also in the olfactory organ and the dorsal parolfactory vesicles, the latter a cephalopod apomorphy. Both reflectin genes are expressed in the eyes and in the olfactory organ. These findings corroborate previous studies that found opsin genes in the transcriptomes of the eyes and several extraocular tissues of various cephalopods. Expression of rhodopsin, xenopsin, retinochrome, and the two reflectin genes in the olfactory organ is a finding that has not been described so far. In other organisms, it has been shown that Retinochrome and Rhodopsin proteins are obligatorily associated with each other as both molecules rely on each other for Retinal isomerisation. In addition, we demonstrate that retinochrome is expressed in the retina of X. notoides and in the olfactory organ. This study shows numerous new expression patterns for Opsin-encoding genes in organs that have not been associated with photoreception before, suggesting that either Opsins may not only be involved in photoreception or organs such as the olfactory organ are involved in photoreception.

Signaling Ligand Heterogeneities in the Peduncle Complex of the Cephalopod Mollusc Octopus bimaculoides

INTRODUCTION

The octopus peduncle complex is an agglomeration of neural structures with remarkably diverse functional roles. The complex rests on the optic tract, between the optic lobe and the central brain, and comprises the peduncle lobe proper, the olfactory lobe, and the optic gland. The peduncle lobe regulates visuomotor behaviors, the optic glands control sexual maturation and maternal death, and the olfactory lobe is thought to receive input from the olfactory organ. Recent transcriptomic and metabolomic studies have identified candidate peptide and steroid ligands in the Octopus bimaculoides optic gland.

METHODS

With gene expression for these ligands and their biosynthetic enzymes, we show that optic gland neurochemistry extends beyond the traditional optic gland secretory tissue and into lobular territories.

RESULTS

A key finding is that the classically defined olfactory lobe is itself a heterogeneous territory and includes steroidogenic territories that overlap with cells expressing molluscan neuropeptides and the synthetic enzyme dopamine beta-hydroxylase.

CONCLUSION

Our study reveals the neurochemical landscape of the octopus peduncle complex, highlighting the unexpected overlap between traditionally defined regions.

Let's talk about sex: Mechanisms of neural sexual differentiation in Bilateria

In multicellular organisms, sexed gonads have evolved that facilitate release of sperm versus eggs, and bilaterian animals purposefully combine their gametes via mating behaviors. Distinct neural circuits have evolved that control these physically different mating events for animals producing eggs from ovaries versus sperm from testis. In this review, we will describe the developmental mechanisms that sexually differentiate neural circuits across three major clades of bilaterian animals-Ecdysozoa, Deuterosomia, and Lophotrochozoa. While many of the mechanisms inducing somatic and neuronal sex differentiation across these diverse organisms are clade-specific rather than evolutionarily conserved, we develop a common framework for considering the developmental logic of these events and the types of neuronal differences that produce sex-differentiated behaviors. This article is categorized under: Congenital Diseases > Stem Cells and Development Neurological Diseases > Stem Cells and Development.

Perspective: Social License as a Lens for Improving Ethical and Welfare Standards in Cephalopod Research

Interest in cephalopods as comparative models in neuroscience, cognition, behavior, and ecology is surging due to recent advances in culture and experimental techniques. Although cephalopods have a long history in research, their use had remained limited due to the challenges of funding work on comparative models, the lack of modern techniques applicable to them, and the small number of labs with the facilities to keep and house large numbers of healthy animals for long periods. Breakthroughs in each of these areas are now creating new interest in cephalopods from researchers who trained and worked in other models, as well as allowing established cephalopod labs to grow and collaborate more widely. This broadening of the field is essential to its long-term health, but also brings with it new and heightened scrutiny from animal rights organizations, federal regulatory agencies, and members of the public. As a community, it is critical that scientists working with cephalopods engage in discussions, studies, and communication that promote high standards for cephalopod welfare. The concept of "social license to operate," more commonly encountered in industry, recreation, and agriculture, provides a useful lens through which to view proactive steps the cephalopod research community may take to ensure a strong future for our field. In this Perspective, I discuss recent progress in cephalopod ethics and welfare studies, and use the conceptual framework of Social License to Operate to propose a forward-looking, public-facing strategy for the parallel development of welfare-focused best practices and scientific breakthroughs.

Programmed ageing: decline of stem cell renewal, immunosenescence, and Alzheimer's disease

The characteristic maximum lifespan varies enormously across animal species from a few hours to hundreds of years. This argues that maximum lifespan, and the ageing process that itself dictates lifespan, are to a large extent genetically determined. Although controversial, this is supported by firm evidence that semelparous species display evolutionarily programmed ageing in response to reproductive and environmental cues. Parabiosis experiments reveal that ageing is orchestrated systemically through the circulation, accompanied by programmed changes in hormone levels across a lifetime. This implies that, like the circadian and circannual clocks, there is a master 'clock of age' (circavital clock) located in the limbic brain of mammals that modulates systemic changes in growth factor and hormone secretion over the lifespan, as well as systemic alterations in gene expression as revealed by genomic methylation analysis. Studies on accelerated ageing in mice, as well as human longevity genes, converge on evolutionarily conserved fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and their receptors, including KLOTHO, as well as insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and steroid hormones, as key players mediating the systemic effects of ageing. Age-related changes in these and multiple other factors are inferred to cause a progressive decline in tissue maintenance through failure of stem cell replenishment. This most severely affects the immune system, which requires constant renewal from bone marrow stem cells. Age-related immune decline increases risk of infection whereas lifespan can be extended in germfree animals. This and other evidence suggests that infection is the major cause of death in higher organisms. Immune decline is also associated with age-related diseases. Taking the example of Alzheimer's disease (AD), we assess the evidence that AD is caused by immunosenescence and infection. The signature protein of AD brain, Aβ, is now known to be an antimicrobial peptide, and Aβ deposits in AD brain may be a response to infection rather than a cause of disease. Because some cognitively normal elderly individuals show extensive neuropathology, we argue that the location of the pathology is crucial - specifically, lesions to limbic brain are likely to accentuate immunosenescence, and could thus underlie a vicious cycle of accelerated immune decline and microbial proliferation that culminates in AD. This general model may extend to other age-related diseases, and we propose a general paradigm of organismal senescence in which declining stem cell proliferation leads to programmed immunosenescence and mortality.

Evolution of Longevity as a Species-Specific Trait in Mammals

From the evolutionary point of view, the priority problem for an individual is not longevity, but adaptation to the environment associated with the need for survival, food supply, and reproduction. We see two main vectors in the evolution of mammals. One is a short lifespan and numerous offspring ensuring reproductive success (r-strategy). The other one is development of valuable skills in order compete successfully (K-strategy). Species with the K-strategy should develop and enhance specific systems (anti-aging programs) aimed at increasing the reliability and adaptability, including lifespan. These systems are signaling cascades that provide cell repair and antioxidant defense. Hence, any arbitrarily selected long-living species should be characterized by manifestation to a different extent of the longevity-favoring traits (e.g., body size, brain development, sociality, activity of body repair and antioxidant defense systems, resistance to xenobiotics and tumor formation, presence of neotenic traits). Hereafter, we will call a set of such traits as the gerontological success of a species. Longevity is not equivalent to the evolutionary or reproductive success. This difference between these phenomena reaches its peak in mammals due to the development of endothermy and cephalization associated with the cerebral cortex expansion, which leads to the upregulated production of oxidative radicals by the mitochondria (and, consequently, accelerated aging), increase in the number of non-dividing differentiated cells, accumulation of the age-related damage in these cells, and development of neurodegenerative diseases. The article presents mathematical indicators used to assess the predisposition to longevity in different species (including the standard mortality rate and basal metabolic rate, as well as their derivatives). The properties of the evolution of mammals (including the differences between modern mammals and their ancestral forms) are also discussed.

Steroid hormones of the octopus self-destruct system

Among all invertebrates, soft-bodied cephalopods have the largest central nervous systems and the greatest brain-to-body mass ratios, yet unlike other big-brained animals, cephalopods are unusually short lived.^1-5 Primates and corvids survive for many decades, but shallow-water octopuses, such as the California two-spot octopus (Octopus bimaculoides), typically live for only 1 year.^6,7 Lifespan and reproduction are controlled by the principal neuroendocrine center of the octopus: the optic glands, which are functional analogs to the vertebrate pituitary gland.^8-10 After mating, females steadfastly brood their eggs, begin fasting, and undergo rapid physiological decline, featuring repeated self-injury and leading to death.¹¹ Removal of the optic glands completely reverses this life history trajectory,¹⁰ but the signaling factors underlying this major life transition are unknown. Here, we characterize the major secretions and steroidogenic pathways of the female optic gland using mass spectrometry techniques. We find that at least three pathways are mobilized to increase synthesis of select sterol hormones after reproduction. One pathway generates pregnane steroids, known in other animals to support reproduction.^12-16 Two other pathways produce 7-dehydrocholesterol and bile acid intermediates, neither of which were previously known to be involved in semelparity. Our results provide insight into invertebrate cholesterol pathways and confirm a remarkable unity of steroid hormone biology in life history processes across Bilateria.

Oviducal gland transcriptomics of Octopus maya through physiological stages and the negative effects of temperature on fertilization

Background

Elevated temperatures reduce fertilization and egg-laying rates in the octopus species. However, the molecular mechanisms that control the onset of fertilization and egg-laying in the octopus' oviducal gland are still unclear; and the effect of temperature on the expression of key reproductive genes is unknown. This study aims to better understand the molecular bases of octopus fertilization and egg-laying, and how they are affected by elevated temperatures.

Method

RNA-seq of oviducal glands was performed for samples before, during, and after fertilization and their transcriptomic profiles were compared. Also, at the fertilization stage, the optimal and thermal-stress conditions were contrasted. Expression levels of key reproductive genes were validated via RT-qPCR.

Results

In mated females before egg-laying, genes required for the synthesis of spermine, spermidine, which may prevent premature fertilization, and the myomodulin neuropeptide were upregulated. Among the genes with higher expression at the fertilization stage, we found those encoding the receptors of serotonin, dopamine, and progesterone; genes involved in the assembly and motility of the sperm flagellum; genes that participate in the interaction between male and female gametes; and genes associated with the synthesis of eggshell mucoproteins. At temperatures above the optimal range for reproduction, mated females reduced the fertilization rate. This response coincided with the upregulation of myomodulin and APGW-amide neuropeptides. Also, genes associated with fertilization like LGALS3, VWC2, and Pcsk1 were downregulated at elevated temperatures. Similarly, in senescent females, genes involved in fertilization were downregulated but those involved in the metabolism of steroid hormones like SRD5A1 were highly expressed.

Altruism and Phenoptosis as Programs Supported by Evolution

Phenoptosis is a programmed death that has emerged in the process of evolution, sometimes taking the form of an altruistic program. In particular, it is believed to be a weapon against the spread of pandemics in the past and an obstacle in fighting pandemics in the present (COVID). However, on the evolutionary scale, deterministic death is not associated with random relationships (for example, bacteria with a particular mutation), but is a product of higher nervous activity or a consequence of established hierarchy that reaches its maximal expression in eusocial communities of Hymenoptera and highly social communities of mammals. Unlike a simple association of individuals, eusociality is characterized by the appearance of non-reproductive individuals as the highest form of altruism. In contrast to primitive programs for unicellular organisms, higher multicellular organisms are characterized by the development of behavior-based phenoptotic programs, especially in the case of reproduction-associated limitation of lifespan. Therefore, we can say that the development of altruism in the course of evolution of sociality leads in its extreme manifestation to phenoptosis. Development of mathematical models for the emergence of altruism and programmed death contributes to our understanding of mechanisms underlying these paradoxical counterproductive (harmful) programs. In theory, this model can be applied not only to insects, but also to other social animals and even to the human society. Adaptive death is an extreme form of altruism. We consider altruism and programmed death as programmed processes in the mechanistic and adaptive sense, respectively. Mechanistically, this is a program existing as a predetermined chain of certain responses, regardless of its adaptive value. As to its adaptive value (regardless of the degree of "phenoptoticity"), this is a characteristic of organisms that demonstrate high levels of kinship, social organization, and physical association typical for higher-order individuals, e.g., unicellular organisms forming colonies with some characteristics of multicellular animals or colonies of multicellular animals displaying features of supraorganisms.

Alternative Animal Models of Aging Research

Most research on mechanisms of aging is being conducted in a very limited number of classical model species, i.e., laboratory mouse (Mus musculus), rat (Rattus norvegicus domestica), the common fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) and roundworm (Caenorhabditis elegans). The obvious advantages of using these models are access to resources such as strains with known genetic properties, high-quality genomic and transcriptomic sequencing data, versatile experimental manipulation capabilities including well-established genome editing tools, as well as extensive experience in husbandry. However, this approach may introduce interpretation biases due to the specific characteristics of the investigated species, which may lead to inappropriate, or even false, generalization. For example, it is still unclear to what extent knowledge of aging mechanisms gained in short-lived model organisms is transferable to long-lived species such as humans. In addition, other specific adaptations favoring a long and healthy life from the immense evolutionary toolbox may be entirely missed. In this review, we summarize the specific characteristics of emerging animal models that have attracted the attention of gerontologists, we provide an overview of the available data and resources related to these models, and we summarize important insights gained from them in recent years. The models presented include short-lived ones such as killifish (Nothobranchius furzeri), long-lived ones such as primates (Callithrix jacchus, Cebus imitator, Macaca mulatta), bathyergid mole-rats (Heterocephalus glaber, Fukomys spp.), bats (Myotis spp.), birds, olms (Proteus anguinus), turtles, greenland sharks, bivalves (Arctica islandica), and potentially non-aging ones such as Hydra and Planaria.