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Rees BB, Reemeyer JE, Binning SA, Brieske SD, Clark TD, De Bonville J, Eisenberg RM, Raby GD, Roche D, Rummer JL, Zhang Y. Estimating maximum oxygen uptake of fishes during swimming and following exhaustive chase - different results, biological bases and applications. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246439. [PMID: 38819376 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
The maximum rate at which animals take up oxygen from their environment (ṀO2,max) is a crucial aspect of their physiology and ecology. In fishes, ṀO2,max is commonly quantified by measuring oxygen uptake either during incremental swimming tests or during recovery from an exhaustive chase. In this Commentary, we compile recent studies that apply both techniques to the same fish and show that the two methods typically yield different mean estimates of ṀO2,max for a group of individuals. Furthermore, within a group of fish, estimates of ṀO2,max determined during swimming are poorly correlated with estimates determined during recovery from chasing (i.e. an individual's ṀO2,max is not repeatable across methods). One explanation for the lack of agreement is that these methods measure different physiological states, each with their own behavioural, anatomical and biochemical determinants. We propose that these methods are not directly interchangeable but, rather, each is suited to address different questions in fish biology. We suggest that researchers select the method that reflects the biological contexts of their study, and we advocate for the use of accurate terminology that acknowledges the technique used to elevate ṀO2 (e.g. peak ṀO2,swim or peak ṀO2,recovery). If the study's objective is to estimate the 'true' ṀO2,max of an individual or species, we recommend that pilot studies compare methods, preferably using repeated-measures designs. We hope that these recommendations contribute new insights into the causes and consequences of variation in ṀO2,max within and among fish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard B Rees
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA
| | | | - Sandra A Binning
- Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, CanadaH2V 0B3
| | - Samantha D Brieske
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA
| | - Timothy D Clark
- School of Life and Environmental Science, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia3216
| | - Jeremy De Bonville
- Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, CanadaH2V 0B3
| | - Rachel M Eisenberg
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, CanadaV6T 1Z4
| | - Graham D Raby
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, CanadaK9L 0G2
| | - Dominique Roche
- Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON, CanadaK1R 0E3
| | - Jodie L Rummer
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
| | - Yangfan Zhang
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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2
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Brieske SD, Mullen SC, Rees BB. Method dependency of maximum oxygen uptake rate and its repeatability in the Gulf killifish, Fundulus grandis. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2024; 104:1537-1547. [PMID: 38403734 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.15692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
The maximum rate at which fish can take up oxygen from their environment to fuel aerobic metabolism is an important feature of their physiology and ecology. Methods to quantify maximum oxygen uptake rate (ṀO2), therefore, should reliably and reproducibly estimate the highest possible ṀO2 by an individual or species under a given set of conditions (peak ṀO2). This study determined peak ṀO2 and its repeatability in Gulf killifish, Fundulus grandis, subjected to three methods to elevate metabolism: swimming at increasing water speeds, during recovery after an exhaustive chase, and after ingestion of a large meal. Estimates of peak ṀO2 during swimming and after an exhaustive chase were repeatable across two trials, whereas peak ṀO2 after feeding was not. Peak ṀO2 determined by the three methods was significantly different from one another, being highest during swimming, lowest after an exhaustive chase, and intermediate after feeding. In addition, peak ṀO2 during recovery from an exhaustive chase depended on the length of time of recovery: in nearly 60% of the trials, values within the first hour of the chase were lower than those measured later. A novel and important finding was that an individual's peak ṀO2 was not repeatable when compared across methods. Therefore, the peak ṀO2 estimated for a group of fish, as well as the ranking of individual ṀO2 within that group, depends on the method used to elevate aerobic metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha D Brieske
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Sylvia C Mullen
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Bernard B Rees
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
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3
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Zhang Y, Lauder GV. Energy conservation by collective movement in schooling fish. eLife 2024; 12:RP90352. [PMID: 38375853 PMCID: PMC10942612 DOI: 10.7554/elife.90352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Many animals moving through fluids exhibit highly coordinated group movement that is thought to reduce the cost of locomotion. However, direct energetic measurements demonstrating the energy-saving benefits of fluid-mediated collective movements remain elusive. By characterizing both aerobic and anaerobic metabolic energy contributions in schools of giant danio (Devario aequipinnatus), we discovered that fish schools have a concave upward shaped metabolism-speed curve, with a minimum metabolic cost at ~1 body length s-1. We demonstrate that fish schools reduce total energy expenditure (TEE) per tail beat by up to 56% compared to solitary fish. When reaching their maximum sustained swimming speed, fish swimming in schools had a 44% higher maximum aerobic performance and used 65% less non-aerobic energy compared to solitary individuals, which lowered the TEE and total cost of transport by up to 53%, near the lowest recorded for any aquatic organism. Fish in schools also recovered from exercise 43% faster than solitary fish. The non-aerobic energetic savings that occur when fish in schools actively swim at high speed can considerably improve both peak and repeated performance which is likely to be beneficial for evading predators. These energetic savings may underlie the prevalence of coordinated group locomotion in fishes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangfan Zhang
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
| | - George V Lauder
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
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Eom J, Wood CM. The first direct measurements of ventilatory flow and oxygen utilization after exhaustive exercise and voluntary feeding in a teleost fish, Oncorhynchus mykiss. FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2023; 49:1129-1149. [PMID: 37874498 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-023-01247-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
A new "less invasive" device incorporating an ultrasonic flow probe and a divided chamber, but no stitching of membranes to the fish, was employed to make the first direct measurements of ventilatory flow rate (V̇w) and % O2 utilization (%U) in juvenile rainbow trout (37 g, 8ºC) after exhaustive exercise (10-min chasing) and voluntary feeding (2.72% body mass ration). Under resting conditions, the allometrically scaled V̇w (300 ml kg-1 min-1 for a 37-g trout = 147 ml kg-1 min-1 for a 236-g trout exhibiting the same mass-specific O2 consumption rate, ṀO2) and the convection requirement for O2 (CR = 4.13 L mmol-1) were considerably lower, and the %U (67%) was considerably higher than in previous studies using surgically attached masks or the Fick principle. After exhaustive exercise, V̇w and ṀO2 approximately doubled whereas frequency (fr) and %U barely changed, so increased ventilatory stroke volume (Vsv) was the most important contributor to increased ṀO2. CR declined slightly. Values gradually returned to control conditions after 2-3 h. After voluntary feeding, short-term increases in V̇w, Vsv and ṀO2 were comparable to those after exercise, and fr again did not change. However, %U increased so CR declined even more. The initial peaks in V̇w, Vsv and ṀO2, similar to those after exercise, were likely influenced by the excitement and exercise component of voluntary feeding. However, in contrast to post-exercise fish, post-prandial fish exhibited second peaks in these same parameters at 1-3 h after feeding, and %U increased further, surpassing 85%, reflecting the true "specific dynamic action" response. We conclude that respiration in trout is much more efficient than previously believed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junho Eom
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T1Z4, Canada.
| | - Chris M Wood
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T1Z4, Canada
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5
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Abstract
The collective directional movement of animals occurs over both short distances and longer migrations, and is a critical aspect of feeding, reproduction and the ecology of many species. Despite the implications of collective motion for lifetime fitness, we know remarkably little about its energetics. It is commonly thought that collective animal motion saves energy: moving alone against fluid flow is expected to be more energetically expensive than moving in a group. Energetic conservation resulting from collective movement is most often inferred from kinematic metrics or from computational models. However, the direct measurement of total metabolic energy savings during collective motion compared with solitary movement over a range of speeds has yet to be documented. In particular, longer duration and higher speed collective motion must involve both aerobic and non-aerobic (high-energy phosphate stores and substrate-level phosphorylation) metabolic energy contributions, and yet no study to date has quantified both types of metabolic contribution in comparison to locomotion by solitary individuals. There are multiple challenging questions regarding the energetics of collective motion in aquatic, aerial and terrestrial environments that remain to be answered. We focus on aquatic locomotion as a model system to demonstrate that understanding the energetics and total cost of collective movement requires the integration of biomechanics, fluid dynamics and bioenergetics to unveil the hydrodynamic and physiological phenomena involved and their underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangfan Zhang
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - George V Lauder
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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6
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Cominassi L, Ressel KN, Brooking AA, Marbacher P, Ransdell-Green EC, O'Brien KM. Metabolic rate increases with acclimation temperature and is associated with mitochondrial function in some tissues of threespine stickleback. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:jeb244659. [PMID: 36268761 PMCID: PMC9687547 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The metabolic rate (ṀO2) of eurythermal fishes changes in response to temperature, yet it is unclear how changes in mitochondrial function contribute to changes in ṀO2. We hypothesized that ṀO2 would increase with acclimation temperature in the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) in parallel with metabolic remodeling at the cellular level but that changes in metabolism in some tissues, such as liver, would contribute more to changes in ṀO2 than others. Threespine stickleback were acclimated to 5, 12 and 20°C for 7 to 21 weeks. At each temperature, standard and maximum metabolic rate (SMR and MMR, respectively), and absolute aerobic scope (AAS) were quantified, along with mitochondrial respiration rates in liver, oxidative skeletal and cardiac muscles, and the maximal activity of citrate synthase (CS) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in liver, and oxidative and glycolytic skeletal muscles. SMR, MMR and AAS increased with acclimation temperature, along with rates of mitochondrial phosphorylating respiration in all tissues. Low SMR and MMR at 5°C were associated with low or undetectable rates of mitochondrial complex II activity and a greater reliance on complex I activity in liver, oxidative skeletal muscle and heart. SMR was positively correlated with cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) activity in liver and oxidative muscle, but not mitochondrial proton leak, whereas MMR was positively correlated with CCO activity in liver. Overall, the results suggest that changes in ṀO2 in response to temperature are driven by changes in some aspects of mitochondrial function in some, but not all, tissues of threespine stickleback.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Cominassi
- University of Alaska Fairbanks, Institute of Arctic Biology, PO Box 757000 Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
| | - Kirsten N. Ressel
- University of Alaska Fairbanks, Institute of Arctic Biology, PO Box 757000 Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
| | - Allison A. Brooking
- University of Alaska Fairbanks, Institute of Arctic Biology, PO Box 757000 Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
| | - Patrick Marbacher
- University of Alaska Fairbanks, Institute of Arctic Biology, PO Box 757000 Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
| | | | - Kristin M. O'Brien
- University of Alaska Fairbanks, Institute of Arctic Biology, PO Box 757000 Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
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7
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Zhang Y, Montgomery DW, White CF, Richards JG, Brauner CJ, Farrell AP. Characterizing the hypoxic performance of a fish using a new metric: PAAS-50. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:275279. [PMID: 35502769 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The hypoxic constraint on peak oxygen uptake (ṀO2peak) was characterized in rainbow trout over a range of ambient oxygen tensions with different testing protocols and statistical models. The best-fit model was selected using both statistical criteria (R2 & AIC) and the model's prediction of three anchor points for hypoxic performance: critical PO2 (Pcrit), maximum ṀO2 and a new metric, the minimum PO2 that supports 50% of absolute aerobic scope (PAAS-50). The best-fitting model was curvilinear using five strategically selected PO2 values. This model predicted PAAS-50 as 70 mm Hg (CV=9%) for rainbow trout. Thus, while a five-point hypoxic performance curve can characterize the limiting effects of hypoxia in fish, as envisioned by Fry over 75 years ago, PAAS-50 is a promising metric to compare hypoxic constraints on performance in a standardized manner both within and across fish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangfan Zhang
- Department of Zoology and Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, VT6 1Z4, Canada.,Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford St, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02138, USA
| | - Daniel W Montgomery
- Department of Zoology and Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, VT6 1Z4, Canada
| | - Connor F White
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford St, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02138, USA
| | - Jeffrey G Richards
- Department of Zoology and Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, VT6 1Z4, Canada
| | - Colin J Brauner
- Department of Zoology and Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, VT6 1Z4, Canada
| | - Anthony P Farrell
- Department of Zoology and Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, VT6 1Z4, Canada
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8
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Killen SS, Christensen EAF, Cortese D, Závorka L, Norin T, Cotgrove L, Crespel A, Munson A, Nati JJH, Papatheodoulou M, McKenzie DJ. Guidelines for reporting methods to estimate metabolic rates by aquatic intermittent-flow respirometry. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb242522. [PMID: 34520540 PMCID: PMC8467026 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Interest in the measurement of metabolic rates is growing rapidly, because of the importance of metabolism in advancing our understanding of organismal physiology, behaviour, evolution and responses to environmental change. The study of metabolism in aquatic animals is undergoing an especially pronounced expansion, with more researchers utilising intermittent-flow respirometry as a research tool than ever before. Aquatic respirometry measures the rate of oxygen uptake as a proxy for metabolic rate, and the intermittent-flow technique has numerous strengths for use with aquatic animals, allowing metabolic rate to be repeatedly estimated on individual animals over several hours or days and during exposure to various conditions or stimuli. There are, however, no published guidelines for the reporting of methodological details when using this method. Here, we provide the first guidelines for reporting intermittent-flow respirometry methods, in the form of a checklist of criteria that we consider to be the minimum required for the interpretation, evaluation and replication of experiments using intermittent-flow respirometry. Furthermore, using a survey of the existing literature, we show that there has been incomplete and inconsistent reporting of methods for intermittent-flow respirometry over the past few decades. Use of the provided checklist of required criteria by researchers when publishing their work should increase consistency of the reporting of methods for studies that use intermittent-flow respirometry. With the steep increase in studies using intermittent-flow respirometry, now is the ideal time to standardise reporting of methods, so that - in the future - data can be properly assessed by other scientists and conservationists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun S. Killen
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Emil A. F. Christensen
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Daphne Cortese
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, BP 1013, 98729 Papetoai, Moorea, French Polynesia
| | - Libor Závorka
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
- WasserCluster Lunz–Inter-university Centre for Aquatic Ecosystem Research, A-3293 Lunz am See, Austria
| | - Tommy Norin
- DTU Aqua: National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lucy Cotgrove
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Amélie Crespel
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Amelia Munson
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California, Davis, CA 95615, USA
| | - Julie J. H. Nati
- MARBEC, Université Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, IRD, 34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Magdalene Papatheodoulou
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
- Enalia Physis Environmental Research Centre (ENALIA), 2101 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - David J. McKenzie
- MARBEC, Université Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, IRD, 34000 Montpellier, France
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9
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Prinzing TS, Zhang Y, Wegner NC, Dulvy NK. Analytical methods matter too: Establishing a framework for estimating maximum metabolic rate for fishes. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:9987-10003. [PMID: 34367554 PMCID: PMC8328417 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in experimental design and equipment have simplified the collection of maximum metabolic rate (MMR) data for a more diverse array of water-breathing animals. However, little attention has been given to the consequences of analytical choices in the estimation of MMR. Using different analytical methods can reduce the comparability of MMR estimates across species and studies and has consequences for the burgeoning number of macroecological meta-analyses using metabolic rate data. Two key analytical choices that require standardization are the time interval, or regression window width, over which MMR is estimated, and the method used to locate that regression window within the raw oxygen depletion trace. Here, we consider the effect of both choices by estimating MMR for two shark and two salmonid species of different activity levels using multiple regression window widths and three analytical methods: rolling regression, sequential regression, and segmented regression. Shorter regression windows yielded higher metabolic rate estimates, with a risk that the shortest windows (<1-min) reflect more system noise than MMR signal. Rolling regression was the best candidate model and produced the highest MMR estimates. Sequential regression models consistently produced lower relative estimates than rolling regression models, while the segmented regression model was unable to produce consistent MMR estimates across individuals. The time-point of the MMR regression window along the oxygen consumption trace varied considerably across individuals but not across models. We show that choice of analytical method, in addition to more widely understood experimental choices, profoundly affect the resultant estimates of MMR. We recommend that researchers (1) employ a rolling regression model with a reliable regression window tailored to their experimental system and (2) explicitly report their analytical methods, including publishing raw data and code.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanya S. Prinzing
- Earth to Ocean Research Group, Department of Biological SciencesSimon Fraser UniversityBurnabyBCCanada
| | - Yangfan Zhang
- Department of Zoology & Faculty of Land and Food SystemsUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBCCanada
| | - Nicholas C. Wegner
- Fisheries Resources DivisionSouthwest Fisheries Science CenterNational Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)La JollaCalifornia
| | - Nicholas K. Dulvy
- Earth to Ocean Research Group, Department of Biological SciencesSimon Fraser UniversityBurnabyBCCanada
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10
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Hypoxia Performance Curve: Assess a Whole-Organism Metabolic Shift from a Maximum Aerobic Capacity towards a Glycolytic Capacity in Fish. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11070447. [PMID: 34357341 PMCID: PMC8307916 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11070447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The utility of measuring whole-animal performance to frame the metabolic response to environmental hypoxia is well established. Progressively reducing ambient oxygen (O2) will initially limit maximum metabolic rate as a result of a hypoxemic state and ultimately lead to a time-limited, tolerance state supported by substrate-level phosphorylation when the O2 supply can no longer meet basic needs (standard metabolic rate, SMR). The metabolic consequences of declining ambient O2 were conceptually framed for fishes initially by Fry's hypoxic performance curve, which characterizes the hypoxemic state and its consequences to absolute aerobic scope (AAS), and Hochachka's concept of scope for hypoxic survival, which characterizes time-limited life when SMR cannot be supported by O2 supply. Yet, despite these two conceptual frameworks, the toolbox to assess whole-animal metabolic performance remains rather limited. Here, we briefly review the ongoing debate concerning the need to standardize the most commonly used assessments of respiratory performance in hypoxic fishes, namely critical O2 (the ambient O2 level below which maintenance metabolism cannot be sustained) and the incipient lethal O2 (the ambient O2 level at which a fish loses the ability to maintain upright equilibrium), and then we advance the idea that the most useful addition to the toolbox will be the limiting-O2 concentration (LOC) performance curve. Using Fry & Hart's (1948) hypoxia performance curve concept, an LOC curve was subsequently developed as an eco-physiological framework by Neil et al. and derived for a group of fish during a progressive hypoxia trial by Claireaux and Lagardère (1999). In the present review, we show how only minor modifications to available respirometry tools and techniques are needed to generate an LOC curve for individual fish. This individual approach to the LOC curve determination then increases its statistical robustness and importantly opens up the possibility of examining individual variability. Moreover, if peak aerobic performance at a given ambient O2 level of each individual is expressed as a percentage of its AAS, the water dissolved O2 that supports 50% of the individual's AAS (DOAAS-50) can be interpolated much like the P50 for an O2 hemoglobin dissociation curve (when hemoglobin is 50% saturated with O2). Thus, critical O2, incipient lethal O2, DOAAS-50 and P50 and can be directly compared within and across species. While an LOC curve for individual fish represents a start to an ongoing need to seamlessly integrate aerobic to anaerobic capacity assessments in a single, multiplexed respirometry trial, we close with a comparative exploration of some of the known whole-organism anaerobic and aerobic capacity traits to examine for correlations among them and guide the next steps.
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11
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Yoon GR, Bjornson F, Deslauriers D, Anderson WG. Comparison of methods to quantify metabolic rate and its relationship with activity in larval lake sturgeon Acipenser fulvescens. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2021; 99:73-86. [PMID: 33583016 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Until recently most studies have focussed on method development for metabolic rate assessment in adult and/or juvenile fish with less focus on measurement of oxygen consumption (ṀO2 ) during early life history stages, including fast-growing larval fish and even less focus on nonteleostean species. In the present study we evaluated measurement techniques for standard metabolic rate (SMR), maximum metabolic rate (MMR) and aerobic scope in an Acipenseriform, the lake sturgeon Acipenser fulvescens, throughout the first year of life. Standardized forced exercise protocols to assess MMR were conducted for 5 or 15 min before or after measurement of SMR. We used different levels of oxygen decline during the measurement period of MMR post forced exercise to understand the influence these may have on the calculation of MMR. Opercular rate and tail beat frequencies were recorded by video as measures of behaviours and compared to metabolic rate recorded over a 24 h period. Results indicate that calculated values for aerobic scope were lower in younger fish. Neither exercise sequence nor exercise duration influenced metabolic rate measurements in the younger fish, but exercise duration did affect measurement of MMR in older fish. Finally, there was no strong correlation between metabolic rate and the measured behaviours in the lake sturgeon at either age. Based on the results, we recommend that a minimum of 6 h of acclimation to the respirometry chamber should be given prior to measuring SMR, a chasing protocol to elicit MMR should ideally be performed at the end of experiment, a short chasing time should be avoided to minimize variation and assessment of MMR should balance measurement limitations of the probes along with when and for how long oxygen consumption is measured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwangseok R Yoon
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Forrest Bjornson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - David Deslauriers
- Institut des Sciences de la Mer de Rimouski, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
| | - W Gary Anderson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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12
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Chabot D, Zhang Y, Farrell AP. Valid oxygen uptake measurements: using high r 2 values with good intentions can bias upward the determination of standard metabolic rate. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2021; 98:1206-1216. [PMID: 33332581 PMCID: PMC9291193 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
This analysis shows good intentions in the selection of valid and precise oxygen uptake ( M ˙ O2 ) measurements by retaining only slopes of declining dissolved oxygen level in a respirometer that have very high values of the coefficient of determination, r2 , are not always successful at excluding nonlinear slopes. Much worse, by potentially removing linear slopes that have low r2 only because of a low signal-to-noise ratio, this procedure can overestimate the calculation of standard metabolic rate (SMR) of the fish. To remedy this possibility, a few simple diagnostic tools are demonstrated to assess the appropriateness of a given minimum acceptable r2 , such as calculating the proportion of rejected M ˙ O2 determinations, producing a histogram of the r2 values and a plot of r2 as a function of M ˙ O2 . The authors offer solutions for cases when many linear slopes have low r2 . The least satisfactory but easiest to implement is lowering the minimum acceptable r2 . More satisfactory solutions involve processing (smoothing) the raw signal of dissolved oxygen as a function of time to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and the r2 s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Chabot
- Fisheries & Oceans CanadaInstitut Maurice‐LamontagneMont‐JoliQuebecCanada
| | - Yangfan Zhang
- Faculty of Land and Food Systems, & Department of ZoologyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | - Anthony P. Farrell
- Faculty of Land and Food Systems, & Department of ZoologyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
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Verhille CE, Dabruzzi TF, Cocherell DE, Mahardja B, Feyrer F, Foin TC, Baerwald MR, Fangue NA. Inter-population differences in salinity tolerance of adult wild Sacramento splittail: osmoregulatory and metabolic responses to salinity. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 8:coaa098. [PMID: 33343901 PMCID: PMC7733400 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coaa098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The Sacramento splittail (Pogonichthys macrolepidotus) is composed of two genetically distinct populations endemic to the San Francisco Estuary (SFE). The allopatric upstream spawning habitat of the Central Valley (CV) population connects with the sympatric rearing grounds via relatively low salinity waters, whereas the San Pablo (SP) population must pass through the relatively high-salinity Upper SFE to reach its allopatric downstream spawning habitat. We hypothesize that if migration through SFE salinities to SP spawning grounds is more challenging for adult CV than SP splittail, then salinity tolerance, osmoregulatory capacity, and metabolic responses to salinity will differ between populations. Osmoregulatory disturbances, assessed by measuring plasma osmolality and ions, muscle moisture and Na+-K+-ATPase activity after 168 to 336 h at 11‰ salinity, showed evidence for a more robust osmoregulatory capacity in adult SP relative to CV splittail. While both resting and maximum metabolic rates were elevated in SP splittail in response to increased salinity, CV splittail metabolic rates were unaffected by salinity. Further, the calculated difference between resting and maximum metabolic values, aerobic scope, did not differ significantly between populations. Therefore, improved osmoregulation came at a metabolic cost for SP splittail but was not associated with negative impacts on scope for aerobic metabolism. These results suggest that SP splittail may be physiologically adjusted to allow for migration through higher-salinity waters. The trends in interpopulation variation in osmoregulatory and metabolic responses to salinity exposures support our hypothesis of greater salinity-related challenges to adult CV than SP splittail migration and are consistent with our previous findings for juvenile splittail populations, further supporting our recommendation of population-specific management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine E Verhille
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, 1 Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA
- Department of Ecology, Montana State University, 310 Lewis Hall ,Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Theresa F Dabruzzi
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, 1 Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA
- Biology Department, Saint Anselm College, 100 Saint Anselm Drive, Manchester, NH 03102, USA
| | - Dennis E Cocherell
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, 1 Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Brian Mahardja
- United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior, Delta Juvenile Fish Monitoring Program, 850 South Guild Ave, Suite 105, Lodi, CA, USA
| | - Fred Feyrer
- California Water Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 6000 J St., Sacramento, CA 95819-6129, USA
| | - Theodore C Foin
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, 1 Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Melinda R Baerwald
- Division of Environmental Services, California Department of Water Resources, 3500 Industrial Boulevard, West Sacramento, CA 95691, USA
| | - Nann A Fangue
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, 1 Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA
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14
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Raby GD, Doherty CLJ, Mokdad A, Pitcher TE, Fisk AT. Post-exercise respirometry underestimates maximum metabolic rate in juvenile salmon. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 8:coaa063. [PMID: 34354836 PMCID: PMC7399229 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coaa063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Experimental biologists now routinely quantify maximum metabolic rate (MMR) in fishes using respirometry, often with the goal of calculating aerobic scope and answering important ecological and evolutionary questions. Methods used for estimating MMR vary considerably, with the two most common methods being (i) the 'chase method', where fish are manually chased to exhaustion and immediately sealed into a respirometer for post-exercise measurement of oxygen consumption rate (Ṁ O2), and (ii) the 'swim tunnel method', whereby Ṁ O2 is measured while the fish swims at high speed in a swim tunnel respirometer. In this study, we compared estimates for MMR made using a 3-min exhaustive chase (followed by measurement of Ṁ O2 in a static respirometer) versus those made via maximal swimming in a swim tunnel respirometer. We made a total of 134 estimates of MMR using the two methods with juveniles of two salmonids (Atlantic salmon Salmo salar and Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) across a 6°C temperature range. We found that the chase method underestimated 'true' MMR (based on the swim tunnel method) by ca. 20% in these species. The gap in MMR estimates between the two methods was not significantly affected by temperature (range of ca. 15-21°C) nor was it affected by body mass (overall range of 53.5-236 g). Our data support some previous studies that have suggested the use of a swim tunnel respirometer generates markedly higher estimates of MMR than does the chase method, at least for species in which a swim tunnel respirometer is viable (e.g. 'athletic' ram ventilating fishes). We recommend that the chase method could be used as a 'proxy' (i.e. with a correction factor) for MMR in future studies if supported by a species-specific calibration with a relevant range of temperatures, body sizes or other covariates of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham D Raby
- Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Claire L J Doherty
- Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Ali Mokdad
- Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Trevor E Pitcher
- Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Aaron T Fisk
- Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
- School of the Environment, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
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Bouyoucos IA, Morrison PR, Weideli OC, Jacquesson E, Planes S, Simpfendorfer CA, Brauner CJ, Rummer JL. Thermal tolerance and hypoxia tolerance are associated in blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) neonates. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:223/14/jeb221937. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.221937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Thermal dependence of growth and metabolism can influence thermal preference and tolerance in marine ectotherms, including threatened and data-deficient species. Here, we quantified the thermal dependence of physiological performance in neonates of a tropical shark species (blacktip reef shark, Carcharhinus melanopterus) from shallow, nearshore habitats. We measured minimum and maximum oxygen uptake rates (ṀO2), calculated aerobic scope, excess post-exercise oxygen consumption and recovery from exercise, and measured critical thermal maxima (CTmax), thermal safety margins, hypoxia tolerance, specific growth rates, body condition and food conversion efficiencies at two ecologically relevant acclimation temperatures (28 and 31°C). Owing to high post-exercise mortality, a third acclimation temperature (33°C) was not investigated further. Acclimation temperature did not affect ṀO2 or growth, but CTmax and hypoxia tolerance were greatest at 31°C and positively associated. We also quantified in vitro temperature (25, 30 and 35°C) and pH effects on haemoglobin–oxygen (Hb–O2) affinity of wild-caught, non-acclimated sharks. As expected, Hb–O2 affinity decreased with increasing temperatures, but pH effects observed at 30°C were absent at 25 and 35°C. Finally, we logged body temperatures of free-ranging sharks and determined that C. melanopterus neonates avoided 31°C in situ. We conclude that C. melanopterus neonates demonstrate minimal thermal dependence of whole-organism physiological performance across a seasonal temperature range and may use behaviour to avoid unfavourable environmental temperatures. The association between thermal tolerance and hypoxia tolerance suggests a common mechanism warranting further investigation. Future research should explore the consequences of ocean warming, especially in nearshore, tropical species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian A. Bouyoucos
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, 4811, Australia
- PSL Research University, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 58 Avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
| | - Phillip R. Morrison
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Ornella C. Weideli
- PSL Research University, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 58 Avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
| | - Eva Jacquesson
- PSL Research University, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 58 Avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
| | - Serge Planes
- PSL Research University, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 58 Avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
- Laboratoire d'Excellence ‘CORAIL’, EPHE, PSL Research University, UPVD, CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Papetoai, Moorea, French Polynesia
| | - Colin A. Simpfendorfer
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture & College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, 4811, Australia
| | - Colin J. Brauner
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Jodie L. Rummer
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, 4811, Australia
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Zhang Y, Gilbert MJH, Farrell AP. Measuring maximum oxygen uptake with an incremental swimming test and by chasing rainbow trout to exhaustion inside a respirometry chamber yields the same results. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2020; 97:28-38. [PMID: 32154581 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This study hypothesized that oxygen uptake (ṀO2 ) measured with a novel protocol of chasing rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss to exhaustion inside a static respirometer while simultaneously monitoring ṀO2 (ṀO2chase ) would generate the same and repeatable peak value as when peak active ṀO2 (ṀO2active ) is measured in a critical swimming speed protocol. To reliably determine peak ṀO2chase , and compare to the peak during recovery of ṀO2 after a conventional chase protocol outside the respirometer (ṀO2rec ), this study applied an iterative algorithm and a minimum sampling window duration (i.e., 1 min based on an analysis of the variance in background and exercise ṀO2 ) to account for ṀO2 dynamics. In support of this hypothesis, peak ṀO2active (707 ± 33 mg O2 h-1 kg-1 ) and peak ṀO2chase (663 ± 43 mg O2 h-1 kg-1 ) were similar (P = 0.49) and repeatable (Pearson's and Spearman's correlation test; r ≥ 0.77; P < 0.05) when measured in the same fish. Therefore, estimates of ṀO2max can be independent of whether a fish is exhaustively chased inside a respirometer or swum to fatigue in a swim tunnel, provided ṀO2 is analysed with an iterative algorithm and a minimum but reliable sampling window. The importance of using this analytical approach was illustrated by peak ṀO2chase being 23% higher (P < 0.05) when compared with a conventional sequential interval regression analysis, whereas using the conventional chase protocol (1-min window) outside the respirometer increased this difference to 31% (P < 0.01). Moreover, because peak ṀO2chase was 18% higher (P < 0.05) than peak ṀO2rec , chasing a fish inside a static respirometer may be a better protocol for obtaining maximum ṀO2 .
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangfan Zhang
- Department of Zoology & Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Matthew J H Gilbert
- Department of Zoology & Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anthony P Farrell
- Department of Zoology & Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Lefevre S. Effects of high CO2 on oxygen consumption rates, aerobic scope and swimming performance. FISH PHYSIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.fp.2019.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
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