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Lee SH, Wang CY, Li IJ, Abe G, Ota KG. Exploring the origin of a unique mutant allele in twin-tail goldfish using CRISPR/Cas9 mutants. Sci Rep 2024; 14:8716. [PMID: 38622170 PMCID: PMC11018756 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58448-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Artificial selection has been widely applied to genetically fix rare phenotypic features in ornamental domesticated animals. For many of these animals, the mutated loci and alleles underlying rare phenotypes are known. However, few studies have explored whether these rare genetic mutations might have been fixed due to competition among related mutated alleles or if the fixation occurred due to contingent stochastic events. Here, we performed genetic crossing with twin-tail ornamental goldfish and CRISPR/Cas9-mutated goldfish to investigate why only a single mutated allele-chdS with a E127X stop codon (also called chdAE127X)-gives rise to the twin-tail phenotype in the modern domesticated goldfish population. Two closely related chdS mutants were generated with CRISPR/Cas9 and compared with the E127X allele in F2 and F3 generations. Both of the CRISPR/Cas9-generated alleles were equivalent to the E127X allele in terms of penetrance/expressivity of the twin-tail phenotype and viability of carriers. These findings indicate that multiple truncating mutations could have produced viable twin-tail goldfish. Therefore, the absence of polymorphic alleles for the twin-tail phenotype in modern goldfish likely stems from stochastic elimination or a lack of competing alleles in the common ancestor. Our study is the first experimental comparison of a singular domestication-derived allele with CRISPR/Cas9-generated alleles to understand how genetic fixation of a unique genotype and phenotype may have occurred. Thus, our work may provide a conceptual framework for future investigations of rare evolutionary events in domesticated animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Hua Lee
- Laboratory of Aquatic Zoology, Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Yilan, 26242, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Yi Wang
- Laboratory of Aquatic Zoology, Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Yilan, 26242, Taiwan
| | - Ing-Jia Li
- Laboratory of Aquatic Zoology, Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Yilan, 26242, Taiwan
| | - Gembu Abe
- Laboratory of Aquatic Zoology, Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Yilan, 26242, Taiwan
- Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Life Science, Tottori University, Nishi-cho 86, Yonago, 683-8503, Japan
| | - Kinya G Ota
- Laboratory of Aquatic Zoology, Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Yilan, 26242, Taiwan.
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2
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Elkin J, Martin A, Courtier-Orgogozo V, Santos ME. Analysis of the genetic loci of pigment pattern evolution in vertebrates. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:1250-1277. [PMID: 37017088 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023]
Abstract
Vertebrate pigmentation patterns are amongst the best characterised model systems for studying the genetic basis of adaptive evolution. The wealth of available data on the genetic basis for pigmentation evolution allows for analysis of trends and quantitative testing of evolutionary hypotheses. We employed Gephebase, a database of genetic variants associated with natural and domesticated trait variation, to examine trends in how cis-regulatory and coding mutations contribute to vertebrate pigmentation phenotypes, as well as factors that favour one mutation type over the other. We found that studies with lower ascertainment bias identified higher proportions of cis-regulatory mutations, and that cis-regulatory mutations were more common amongst animals harbouring a higher number of pigment cell classes. We classified pigmentation traits firstly according to their physiological basis and secondly according to whether they affect colour or pattern, and identified that carotenoid-based pigmentation and variation in pattern boundaries are preferentially associated with cis-regulatory change. We also classified genes according to their developmental, cellular, and molecular functions. We found a greater proportion of cis-regulatory mutations in genes implicated in upstream developmental processes compared to those involved in downstream cellular functions, and that ligands were associated with a higher proportion of cis-regulatory mutations than their respective receptors. Based on these trends, we discuss future directions for research in vertebrate pigmentation evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Elkin
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Arnaud Martin
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, 800 22nd St. NW, Suite 6000, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | | | - M Emília Santos
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
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3
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Ishikawa A, Yamanouchi S, Iwasaki W, Kitano J. Convergent copy number increase of genes associated with freshwater colonization in fishes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20200509. [PMID: 35634928 PMCID: PMC9149799 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Copy number variation (CNV) can cause phenotypic changes. However, in contrast to amino acid substitutions and cis-regulatory changes, little is known about the functional categories of genes in which CNV is important for adaptation to novel environments. It is also unclear whether the same genes repeatedly change the copy numbers for adapting to similar environments. Here, we investigate CNV associated with freshwater colonization in fishes, which was observed multiple times across different lineages. Using 48 ray-finned fishes across diverse orders, we identified 23 genes whose copy number increases were associated with freshwater colonization. These genes showed enrichment for peptide receptor activity, hexosyltransferase activity and unsaturated fatty acid metabolism. We further revealed that three of the genes showed copy number increases in freshwater populations compared to marine ancestral populations of the stickleback genus Gasterosteus. These results indicate that copy number increases of genes involved in fatty acid metabolism (FADS2), immune function (PSMB8a) and thyroid hormone metabolism (UGT2) may be important for freshwater colonization at both the inter-order macroevolutionary scale and at the intra-genus microevolutionary scale. Further analysis across diverse taxa will help to understand the role of CNV in the adaptation to novel environments. This article is part of the theme issue 'Genetic basis of adaptation and speciation: from loci to causative mutations'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asano Ishikawa
- Ecological Genetics Laboratory, National Institute of Genetics, Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8562, Japan
| | - Shun Yamanouchi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
| | - Wataru Iwasaki
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8562, Japan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
| | - Jun Kitano
- Ecological Genetics Laboratory, National Institute of Genetics, Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan
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4
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Kitano J, Ishikawa A, Ravinet M, Courtier-Orgogozo V. Genetic basis of speciation and adaptation: from loci to causative mutations. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20200503. [PMID: 35634921 PMCID: PMC9149796 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Does evolution proceed in small steps or large leaps? How repeatable is evolution? How constrained is the evolutionary process? Answering these long-standing questions in evolutionary biology is indispensable for both understanding how extant biodiversity has evolved and predicting how organisms and ecosystems will respond to changing environments in the future. Understanding the genetic basis of phenotypic diversification and speciation in natural populations is key to properly answering these questions. The leap forward in genome sequencing technologies has made it increasingly easier to not only investigate the genetic architecture but also identify the variant sites underlying adaptation and speciation in natural populations. Furthermore, recent advances in genome editing technologies are making it possible to investigate the functions of each candidate gene in organisms from natural populations. In this article, we discuss how these recent technological advances enable the analysis of causative genes and mutations and how such analysis can help answer long-standing evolutionary biology questions. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Genetic basis of adaptation and speciation: from loci to causative mutations’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Kitano
- Ecological Genetics Laboratory, National Institute of Genetics, Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan
| | - Asano Ishikawa
- Ecological Genetics Laboratory, National Institute of Genetics, Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan
- Laboratory of Molecular Ecological Genetics, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwanoha 5-1-5, Chiba 277-8562, Japan
| | - Mark Ravinet
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
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5
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Hanly JJ, Livraghi L, Heryanto C, McMillan WO, Jiggins CD, Gilbert LE, Martin A. A large deletion at the cortex locus eliminates butterfly wing patterning. G3 GENES|GENOMES|GENETICS 2022; 12:6517782. [PMID: 35099556 PMCID: PMC8982378 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkac021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
As the genetic basis of natural and domesticated variation has been described in recent years, a number of hotspot genes have been repeatedly identified as the targets of selection, Heliconius butterflies display a spectacular diversity of pattern variants in the wild and the genetic basis of these patterns has been well-described. Here, we sought to identify the mechanism behind an unusual pattern variant that is instead found in captivity, the ivory mutant, in which all scales on both the wings and body become white or yellow. Using a combination of autozygosity mapping and coverage analysis from 37 captive individuals, we identify a 78-kb deletion at the cortex wing patterning locus, a gene which has been associated with wing pattern evolution in H. melpomene and 10 divergent lepidopteran species. This deletion is undetected among 458 wild Heliconius genomes samples, and its dosage explains both homozygous and heterozygous ivory phenotypes found in captivity. The deletion spans a large 5′ region of the cortex gene that includes a facultative 5′UTR exon detected in larval wing disk transcriptomes. CRISPR mutagenesis of this exon replicates the wing phenotypes from coding knock-outs of cortex, consistent with a functional role of ivory-deleted elements in establishing scale color fate. Population demographics reveal that the stock giving rise to the ivory mutant has a mixed origin from across the wild range of H. melpomene, and supports a scenario where the ivory mutation occurred after the introduction of cortex haplotypes from Ecuador. Homozygotes for the ivory deletion are inviable while heterozygotes are the targets of artificial selection, joining 40 other examples of allelic variants that provide heterozygous advantage in animal populations under artificial selection by fanciers and breeders. Finally, our results highlight the promise of autozygosity and association mapping for identifying the genetic basis of aberrant mutations in captive insect populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Hanly
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama 0843-03092, Republic of Panama
| | - Luca Livraghi
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama 0843-03092, Republic of Panama
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Christa Heryanto
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - W Owen McMillan
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama 0843-03092, Republic of Panama
| | - Chris D Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Lawrence E Gilbert
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Arnaud Martin
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
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6
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Chadaeva I, Ponomarenko P, Kozhemyakina R, Suslov V, Bogomolov A, Klimova N, Shikhevich S, Savinkova L, Oshchepkov D, Kolchanov NA, Markel A, Ponomarenko M. Domestication Explains Two-Thirds of Differential-Gene-Expression Variance between Domestic and Wild Animals; The Remaining One-Third Reflects Intraspecific and Interspecific Variation. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:2667. [PMID: 34573632 PMCID: PMC8465180 DOI: 10.3390/ani11092667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 09/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Belyaev's concept of destabilizing selection during domestication was a major achievement in the XX century. Its practical value has been realized in commercial colors of the domesticated fox that never occur in the wild and has been confirmed in a wide variety of pet breeds. Many human disease models involving animals allow to test drugs before human testing. Perhaps this is why investigators doing transcriptomic profiling of domestic versus wild animals have searched for breed-specific patterns. Here we sequenced hypothalamic transcriptomes of tame and aggressive rats, identified their differentially expressed genes (DEGs), and, for the first time, applied principal component analysis to compare them with all the known DEGs of domestic versus wild animals that we could find. Two principal components, PC1 and PC2, respectively explained 67% and 33% of differential-gene-expression variance (hereinafter: log2 value) between domestic and wild animals. PC1 corresponded to multiple orthologous DEGs supported by homologs; these DEGs kept the log2 value sign from species to species and from tissue to tissue (i.e., a common domestication pattern). PC2 represented stand-alone homologous DEG pairs reversing the log2 value sign from one species to another and from tissue to tissue (i.e., representing intraspecific and interspecific variation).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Mikhail Ponomarenko
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (I.C.); (P.P.); (R.K.); (V.S.); (A.B.); (N.K.); (S.S.); (L.S.); (D.O.); (N.A.K.); (A.M.)
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7
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Abstract
Tremendous chemical diversity is the hallmark of plants and is supported by highly complex biochemical machinery. Plant metabolic enzymes originated and were transferred from eukaryotic and prokaryotic ancestors and further diversified by the unprecedented rates of gene duplication and functionalization experienced in land plants. Unlike microbes, which have frequent horizontal gene transfer events and multiple inputs of energy and organic carbon, land plants predominantly rely on organic carbon generated from CO2 and have experienced very few, if any, gene transfers during their recent evolutionary history. As such, plant metabolic networks have evolved in a stepwise manner and on existing networks under various evolutionary constraints. This review aims to take a broader view of plant metabolic evolution and lay a framework to further explore evolutionary mechanisms of the complex metabolic network. Understanding the underlying metabolic and genetic constraints is also an empirical prerequisite for rational engineering and redesigning of plant metabolic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi A Maeda
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA;
| | - Alisdair R Fernie
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany;
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8
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Alseekh S, Scossa F, Wen W, Luo J, Yan J, Beleggia R, Klee HJ, Huang S, Papa R, Fernie AR. Domestication of Crop Metabolomes: Desired and Unintended Consequences. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 26:650-661. [PMID: 33653662 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2021.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The majority of the crops and vegetables of today were domesticated from their wild progenitors within the past 12 000 years. Considerable research effort has been expended on characterizing the genes undergoing positive and negative selection during the processes of crop domestication and improvement. Many studies have also documented how the contents of a handful of metabolites have been altered during human selection, but we are only beginning to unravel the true extent of the metabolic consequences of breeding. We highlight how crop metabolomes have been wittingly or unwittingly shaped by the processes of domestication, and highlight how we can identify new targets for metabolite engineering for the purpose of de novo domestication of crop wild relatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleh Alseekh
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany; Center of Plant Systems Biology and Biotechnology, Plovdiv 4000, Bulgaria
| | - Federico Scossa
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany; Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA), Research Centre for Genomics and Bioinformatics (CREA-GB), 00178 Rome, Italy
| | - Weiwei Wen
- Key laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology (MOE),College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Hubei, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jie Luo
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research, Huazhong Agricultural University Hubei, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Jianbing Yan
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research, Huazhong Agricultural University Hubei, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Romina Beleggia
- Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA), Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops (CREA-, CI), 71122 Foggia, Italy
| | - Harry J Klee
- Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Sanwen Huang
- Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture - Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Roberto Papa
- Department of Agricultural, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy.
| | - Alisdair R Fernie
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany; Center of Plant Systems Biology and Biotechnology, Plovdiv 4000, Bulgaria.
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9
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Andolfo G, D’Agostino N, Frusciante L, Ercolano MR. The Tomato Interspecific NB-LRR Gene Arsenal and Its Impact on Breeding Strategies. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12020184. [PMID: 33514027 PMCID: PMC7911644 DOI: 10.3390/genes12020184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a model system for studying the molecular basis of resistance in plants. The investigation of evolutionary dynamics of tomato resistance (R)-loci provides unique opportunities for identifying factors that promote or constrain genome evolution. Nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR) receptors belong to one of the most plastic and diversified families. The vast amount of genomic data available for Solanaceae and wild tomato relatives provides unprecedented insights into the patterns and mechanisms of evolution of NB-LRR genes. Comparative analysis remarked a reshuffling of R-islands on chromosomes and a high degree of adaptive diversification in key R-loci induced by species-specific pathogen pressure. Unveiling NB-LRR natural variation in tomato and in other Solanaceae species offers the opportunity to effectively exploit genetic diversity in genomic-driven breeding programs with the aim of identifying and introducing new resistances in tomato cultivars. Within this motivating context, we reviewed the repertoire of NB-LRR genes available for tomato improvement with a special focus on signatures of adaptive processes. This issue is still relevant and not thoroughly investigated. We believe that the discovery of mechanisms involved in the generation of a gene with new resistance functions will bring great benefits to future breeding strategies.
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Soverna AF, Rodriguez NC, Korgaonkar A, Hasson E, Stern DL, Frankel N. Cis-regulatory variation in the shavenbaby gene underlies intraspecific phenotypic variation, mirroring interspecific divergence in the same trait. Evolution 2020; 75:427-436. [PMID: 33314059 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Despite considerable progress in recent decades in dissecting the genetic causes of natural morphological variation, there is limited understanding of how variation within species ultimately contributes to species differences. We have studied patterning of the non-sensory hairs, commonly known as "trichomes," on the dorsal cuticle of first-instar larvae of Drosophila. Most Drosophila species produce a dense lawn of dorsal trichomes, but a subset of these trichomes were lost in D. sechellia and D. ezoana due entirely to regulatory evolution of the shavenbaby (svb) gene. Here, we describe intraspecific variation in dorsal trichome patterns of first-instar larvae of D. virilis that is similar to the trichome pattern variation identified previously between species. We found that a single large effect QTL, which includes svb, explains most of the trichome number difference between two D. virilis strains and that svb expression correlates with the trichome difference between strains. This QTL does not explain the entire difference between strains, implying that additional loci contribute to variation in trichome numbers. Thus, the genetic architecture of intraspecific variation exhibits similarities and differences with interspecific variation that may reflect differences in long-term and short-term evolutionary processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Faigon Soverna
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisiológicas y Ecológicas Vinculadas a la Agricultura (IFEVA, CONICET-UBA), Buenos Aires, 1417, Argentina
| | - Nahuel Cabrera Rodriguez
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución (FCEyN, UBA) and Instituto de Ecología, Genética y Evolución de Buenos Aires (IEGEBA, CONICET-UBA), Buenos Aires, 1428, Argentina
| | - Aishwarya Korgaonkar
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA, 20147, USA
| | - Esteban Hasson
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución (FCEyN, UBA) and Instituto de Ecología, Genética y Evolución de Buenos Aires (IEGEBA, CONICET-UBA), Buenos Aires, 1428, Argentina
| | - David L Stern
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA, 20147, USA
| | - Nicolás Frankel
- Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE, CONICET-UBA) and Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución (FCEyN, UBA), Buenos Aires, 1428, Argentina
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