Comparative cranial biomechanics in two lizard species: impact of variation in cranial design

The skull of the semi-aquatic neotropical lizard Echinosaura horrida (Gymnophthalmidae: Cercosaurinae) reveals new synapomorphies within Gymnophthalmoidea

The rough teiid or water cork lizard (Echinosaura horrida) is a small reptile from Colombia and Ecuador placed in a genus that contains eight species and well-known phylogenetic relationships. Here we provide a detailed description and illustrations, bone by bone, of its skull, while we discussed its intraspecific variation by comparing high-resolution computed tomography data from two specimens and the variation within the genus by including previously published data from Echinosaura fischerorum. This allowed to propose putative diagnostic character states for Echinosaura horrida and synapomorphies for Echinosaura. In addition, our discussion includes broader comparisons of new character transformations of the jugal, vomer, orbitosphenoid, and hyoid. These characters are important for diagnosing clades at different levels of the Gymnophthalmoidea phylogeny.

Comparative Cranial Joint Variation in Three Different Lizards: Impact of Feeding Habit

The skull structure in vertebrates is closely related to feeding mode. This study examines the relationship between the cranial joint morphology variation among different lizard species [Eumesces schneideri (Daudin, 1802), Anguis colchica (Nordmann, 1840), and Eremias suphani (Başoğlu & Hellmich 1968)] and their feeding habit. This study investigates the cranial anatomical correlates of distinct cranial kinesis models. Different cranial joints permitting intracranial mobility have been observed among these species using histological section and whole-mount techniques. The cranial joints are similar among species that generally exhibit cranial kinesis. The stomach contents of the species were analyzed, and E. schneideri has the highest prey diversity among the examined species, followed by E. suphani and A. colchica in that order. The study indicated that the prey preferences differ among three lizard species. While no plant material was detected in the stomach contents of E. suphani and E. schneideri, it was detected in A. colchica. The diet of the three lizards consisted of various species of small arthropods such as Arachnida, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Formicidae, and Gastropoda. Additionally, no significant differences were detected in SVL, head, and jaw size measurements between adult males and females of each species.

Histological Study of Skin Structures From Selected Body Areas in the Varanus komodoensis

The skin of the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) is covered by a form of armour formed mainly of scales, which often co-occur with osteoderms. Scales are keratinized, non-mineralized structures in the uppermost layer of the epidermis that are in contact with each other to form a system in which individual scales are isolated from each other by a softer skin fold zone. In the Varanus, the surface of the scales is flat and smooth (thoracic limb, abdomen, and tail areas), domed and smooth (head area) or domed with conical ornamentation (dorsal surface, pelvic limb-dorsal surface areas). In contrast, osteoderms are mineralized structures that are an integral part of the skin, located below the epidermal surface and positioned parallel (head, tail, thoracic limb-dorsal surface, thoracic limb-palmar surface, and tail) or obliquely (pelvic limb-dorsal surface, groin, abdomen) to the surface. Regardless of the body region, osteoderms are structures that are completely anchored in the dermis, and their surface is smooth and devoid of ornamentation. Tangential sections of the osteoderms demonstrate concentric resting lines. Histological sections of the varanid dermis show the presence of collagen bundles, parallel interlacing or crossing bundles of collagen fibers of varying thickness and degree of compactness, accompanied by muscle fibers. In the area of skin close to the osteoderm, loosely arranged bundles of collagen fibers are present, while in the zone distal to the osteoderm, a compact arrangement of these fibers is present. This study documents the morphological diversity and distribution of osteoderms and scales in selected areas of the body of V. komodoensis. Scales are characterized by a high polymorphism related to body region, while osteoderms show a high morphological similarity independent of the area of occurrence.

Morphological evolution and functional consequences of giantism in tyrannosauroid dinosaurs

Tyrannosauroids are a clade of theropod dinosaur taxa that varied greatly in their body size distribution. We investigated the feeding performance of six tyrannosaur genera of variable body size and skull morphology. We used 3D finite element analysis to test whether skull shape becomes more or less resistant to feeding-induced forces. Cranial and mandibular models were scaled by adult Tyrannosaurus's surface area to analyze the influence of shape on skull function. It was found that Tyrannosaurus experienced higher absolute stresses compared to small-bodied relatives. When surface area values were equalized across genera to account for the effect of size and test efficiency of skull shape, smaller individuals experience notably greater stresses than larger relatives due to the robust cranial osteology characterized in the allometry of tyrannosaurids. These results may indicate that the wide crania of tyrannosaurids convey a functional advantage that basal tyrannosauroids, juvenile tyrannosauroids, and alioramins lacked.

Evolution of the temporal skull openings in land vertebrates: A hypothetical framework on the basis of biomechanics

The complex constructions of land vertebrate skulls have inspired a number of functional analyses. In the present study, we provide a basic view on skull biomechanics and offer a framework for more general observations using advanced modeling approaches in the future. We concentrate our discussion on the cranial openings in the temporal skull region and work out two major, feeding-related factors that largely influence the shape of the skull. We argue that (1) the place where the most forceful biting is conducted and (2) the handling of resisting food (sideward movements) constitute the formation and shaping of either one or two temporal arcades surrounding these openings. Diversity in temporal skull anatomy among amniotes can be explained by specific modulations of these factors with different amounts of acting forces which inevitably lead to deposition or reduction of bone material. For example, forceful anterior bite favors an infratemporal bar, whereas forceful posterior bite favors formation of an upper temporal arcade. Transverse forces (inertia and resistance of seized objects) as well as neck posture also influence the shaping of the temporal region. Considering their individual skull morphotypes, we finally provide hypotheses on the feeding adaptation in a variety of major tetrapod groups. We did not consider ligaments, internal bone structure, or cranial kinesis in our considerations. Involving those in quantitative tests of our hypotheses, such as finite element system synthesis, will provide a comprehensive picture on cranial mechanics and evolution in the future.

The role of cranial osteoderms on the mechanics of the skull in scincid lizards

Osteoderms (ODs) are calcified organs formed directly within the skin of most major extant tetrapod lineages. Lizards possibly show the greatest diversity in ODs morphology and distribution. ODs are commonly hypothesized to function as a defensive armor. Here we tested the hypothesis that cranial osteoderms also contribute to the mechanics of the skull during biting. A series of in vivo experiments were carried out on three specimens of Tiliqua gigas. Animals were induced to bite a force plate while a single cranial OD was strain gauged. A finite element (FE) model of a related species, Tiliqua scincoides, was developed and used to estimate the level of strain across the same OD as instrumented in the in vivo experiments. FE results were compared to the in vivo data and the FE model was modified to test two hypothetical scenarios in which all ODs were (i) removed from, and (ii) fused to, the skull. In vivo data demonstrated that the ODs were carrying load during biting. The hypothetical FE models showed that when cranial ODs were fused to the skull, the overall strain across the skull arising from biting was reduced. Removing the ODs showed an opposite effect. In summary, our findings suggest that cranial ODs contribute to the mechanics of the skull, even when they are loosely attached.

Assessment of the mechanical role of cranial sutures in the mammalian skull: Computational biomechanical modelling of the rat skull

Cranial sutures are fibrocellular joints between the skull bones that are progressively replaced with bone throughout ontogeny, facilitating growth and cranial shape change. This transition from soft tissue to bone is reflected in the biomechanical properties of the craniofacial complex. However, the mechanical significance of cranial sutures has only been explored at a few localised areas within the mammalian skull, and as such our understanding of suture function in overall skull biomechanics is still limited. Here, we sought to determine how the overall strain environment is affected by the complex network of cranial sutures in the mammal skull. We combined two computational biomechanical methods, multibody dynamics analysis and finite element analysis, to simulate biting in a rat skull and compared models with and without cranial sutures. Our results show that including complex sutures in the rat model does not substantially change overall strain gradients across the cranium, particularly strain magnitudes in the bones overlying the brain. However, local variations in strain magnitudes and patterns can be observed in areas close to the sutures. These results show that, during feeding, sutures may be more important in some regions than others. Sutures should therefore be included in models that require accurate local strain magnitudes and patterns of cranial strain, particularly if models are developed for analysis of specific regions, such as the temporomandibular joint or zygomatic arch. Our results suggest that, for mammalian skulls, cranial sutures might be more important for allowing brain expansion during growth than redistributing biting loads across the cranium in adults.

The efficacy of computed tomography scanning versus surface scanning in 3D finite element analysis

Finite element analysis (FEA) is a commonly used application in biomechanical studies of both extant and fossil taxa to assess stress and strain in solid structures such as bone. FEA can be performed on 3D structures that are generated using various methods, including computed tomography (CT) scans and surface scans. While previous palaeobiological studies have used both CT scanned models and surface scanned models, little research has evaluated to what degree FE results may vary when CT scans and surface scans of the same object are compared. Surface scans do not preserve the internal geometries of 3D structures, which are typically preserved in CT scans. Here, we created 3D models from CT scans and surface scans of the same specimens (crania and mandibles of a Nile crocodile, a green sea turtle, and a monitor lizard) and performed FEA under identical loading parameters. It was found that once surface scanned models are solidified, they output stress and strain distributions and model deformations comparable to their CT scanned counterparts, though differing by notable stress and strain magnitudes in some cases, depending on morphology of the specimen and the degree of reconstruction applied. Despite similarities in overall mechanical behaviour, surface scanned models can differ in exterior shape compared to CT scanned models due to inaccuracies that can occur during scanning and reconstruction, resulting in local differences in stress distribution. Solid-fill surface scanned models generally output lower stresses compared to CT scanned models due to their compact interiors, which must be accounted for in studies that use both types of scans.

One step further in biomechanical models in palaeontology: a nonlinear finite element analysis review

Finite element analysis (FEA) is no longer a new technique in the fields of palaeontology, anthropology, and evolutionary biology. It is nowadays a well-established technique within the virtual functional-morphology toolkit. However, almost all the works published in these fields have only applied the most basic FEA tools i.e., linear materials in static structural problems. Linear and static approximations are commonly used because they are computationally less expensive, and the error associated with these assumptions can be accepted. Nonetheless, nonlinearities are natural to be used in biomechanical models especially when modelling soft tissues, establish contacts between separated bones or the inclusion of buckling results. The aim of this review is to, firstly, highlight the usefulness of non-linearities and secondly, showcase these FEA tool to researchers that work in functional morphology and biomechanics, as non-linearities can improve their FEA models by widening the possible applications and topics that currently are not used in palaeontology and anthropology.

Unravelling the structural variation of lizard osteoderms

Vertebrate skin is a remarkable organ that supports and protects the body. It consists of two layers, the epidermis and the underlying dermis. In some tetrapods, the dermis includes mineralised organs known as osteoderms (OD). Lizards, with over 7,000 species, show the greatest diversity in OD morphology and distribution, yet we barely understand what drives this diversity. This multiscale analysis of five species of lizards, whose lineages diverged ∼100-150 million years ago, compared the micro- and macrostructure, material properties, and bending rigidity of their ODs, and examined the underlying bones of the skull roof and jaw (including teeth when possible). Unsurprisingly, OD shape, taken alone, impacts bending rigidity, with the ODs of Corucia zebrata being most flexible and those of Timon lepidus being most rigid. Macroscopic variation is also reflected in microstructural diversity, with differences in tissue composition and arrangement. However, the properties of the core bony tissues, in both ODs and cranial bones, were found to be similar across taxa, although the hard, capping tissue on the ODs of Heloderma and Pseudopus had material properties similar to those of tooth enamel. The results offer evidence on the functional adaptations of cranial ODs, but questions remain regarding the factors driving their diversity. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Understanding nature has always been a significant source of inspiration for various areas of the physical and biological sciences. Here we unravelled a novel biomineralization, i.e. calcified tissue, OD, forming within the skin of lizards which show significant diversity across the group. A range of techniques were used to provide an insight into these exceptionally diverse natural structures, in an integrated, whole system fashion. Our results offer some suggestions into the functional and biomechanical adaptations of OD and their hierarchical structure. This knowledge can provide a potential source of inspiration for biomimetic and bioinspired designs, applicable to the manufacturing of light-weight, damage-tolerant and multifunctional materials for areas such as tissue engineering.

A new stem-varanid lizard (Reptilia, Squamata) from the early Eocene of China

Monitor lizards (genus Varanus) are today distributed across Asia, Africa and Australasia and represent one of the most recognizable and successful lizard lineages. They include charismatic living species like the Komodo dragon of Indonesia and the even larger extinct Varanus prisca (Megalania) of Australia. The fossil record suggests that living varanids had their origins in a diverse assemblage of stem (varaniform) species known from the Late Cretaceous of China and Mongolia. However, determining the biogeographic origins of crown-varanids has proved problematic, with Asia, Africa and Australia each being proposed. The problem is complicated by the fragmentary nature of many attributed specimens, and the fact that the most widely accepted, and most complete, fossil of a stem-varanid, that of Saniwa ensidens, is from North America. In this paper, we describe a well-preserved skull and skeleton of a new genus of stem-varanid from the Eocene of China. Phylogenetic analysis places the new genus as the sister taxon of Varanus, suggesting that the transition from Cretaceous varaniform lizards to Varanus occurred in East Asia before the origin and dispersal of Varanus to other regions. The discovery of the new specimen thus fills an important gap in the fossil record of monitor lizards. The similar lengths of the fore- and hindlimbs in this new taxon are unusual among the total group Varanidae and suggest it may have had a different lifestyle, at least from the contemporaneous North American S. ensidens. This article is part of the theme issue 'The impact of Chinese palaeontology on evolutionary research'.

Cranial functional morphology of the pseudosuchian Effigia and implications for its ecological role in the Triassic

Pseudosuchians, archosaurian reptiles more closely related to crocodylians than to birds, exhibited high morphological diversity during the Triassic with numerous examples of morphological convergence described between Triassic pseudosuchians and post-Triassic dinosaurs. One example is the shuvosaurid Effigia okeeffeae which exhibits an "ostrich-like" bauplan comprising a gracile skeleton with edentulous jaws and large orbits, similar to ornithomimid dinosaurs and extant palaeognaths. This bauplan is regarded as an adaptation for herbivory, but this hypothesis assumes morphological convergence confers functional convergence, and has received little explicit testing. Here, we restore the skull morphology of Effigia, perform myological reconstructions, and apply finite element analysis to quantitatively investigate skull function. We also perform finite element analysis on the crania of the ornithomimid dinosaur Ornithomimus edmontonicus, the extant palaeognath Struthio camelus and the extant pseudosuchian Alligator mississippiensis to assess the degree of functional convergence with a taxon that exhibit "ostrich-like" bauplans and its closest extant relatives. We find that Effigia possesses a mosaic of mechanically strong and weak features, including a weak mandible that likely restricted feeding to the anterior portion of the jaws. We find limited functional convergence with Ornithomimus and Struthio and limited evidence of phylogenetic constraints with extant pseudosuchians. We infer that Effigia was a specialist herbivore that likely fed on softer plant material, a niche unique among the study taxa and potentially among contemporaneous Triassic herbivores. This study increases the known functional diversity of pseudosuchians and highlights that superficial morphological similarity between unrelated taxa does not always imply functional and ecological convergence.

Modeling tooth enamel in FEA comparisons of skulls: Comparing common simplifications with biologically realistic models

Palaeontologists often use finite element analyses, in which forces propagate through objects with specific material properties, to investigate feeding biomechanics. Teeth are usually modeled with uniform properties (all bone or all enamel). In reality, most teeth are composed of pulp, dentine, and enamel. We tested how simplified teeth compare to more realistic models using mandible models of three reptiles. For each, we created models representing enamel thicknesses found in extant taxa, as well as simplified models (bone, dentine or enamel). Our results suggest that general comparisons of stress distribution among distantly related taxa do not require representation of dental tissues, as there was no noticeable effect on heatmap representations of stress. However, we find that representation of dental tissues impacts bite force estimates, although magnitude of these effects may differ depending on constraints. Thus, as others have shown, the detail necessary in a biomechanical model relates to the questions being examined.

True colours or red herrings?: colour maps for finite-element analysis in palaeontological studies to enhance interpretation and accessibility

Accessibility is a key aspect for the presentation of research data. In palaeontology, new data is routinely obtained with computational techniques, such as finite-element analysis (FEA). FEA is used to calculate stress and deformation in objects when subjected to external forces. Results are displayed using contour plots in which colour information is used to convey the underlying biomechanical data. The Rainbow colour map is nearly exclusively used for these contour plots in palaeontological studies. However, numerous studies in other disciplines have shown the Rainbow map to be problematic due to uneven colour representation and its inaccessibility for those with colour vision deficiencies. Here, different colour maps were tested for their accuracy in representing values of FEA models. Differences in stress magnitudes (ΔS) and colour values (ΔE) of subsequent points from the FEA models were compared and their correlation was used as a measure of accuracy. The results confirm that the Rainbow colour map is not well suited to represent the underlying stress distribution of FEA models with other colour maps showing a higher discriminative power. As the performance of the colour maps varied with tested scenarios/stress types, it is recommended to use different colour maps for specific purposes.

Computational biomechanical modelling of the rabbit cranium during mastication

Although a functional relationship between bone structure and mastication has been shown in some regions of the rabbit skull, the biomechanics of the whole cranium during mastication have yet to be fully explored. In terms of cranial biomechanics, the rabbit is a particularly interesting species due to its uniquely fenestrated rostrum, the mechanical function of which is debated. In addition, the rabbit processes food through incisor and molar biting within a single bite cycle, and the potential influence of these bite modes on skull biomechanics remains unknown. This study combined the in silico methods of multi-body dynamics and finite element analysis to compute musculoskeletal forces associated with a range of incisor and molar biting, and to predict the associated strains. The results show that the majority of the cranium, including the fenestrated rostrum, transmits masticatory strains. The peak strains generated over all bites were found to be attributed to both incisor and molar biting. This could be a consequence of a skull shape adapted to promote an even strain distribution for a combination of infrequent incisor bites and cyclic molar bites. However, some regions, such as the supraorbital process, experienced low peak strain for all masticatory loads considered, suggesting such regions are not designed to resist masticatory forces.