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Jensen JH, Dyre JC, Hecksher T. Universal wing- and fin-beat frequency scaling. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303834. [PMID: 38837960 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
We derive an equation that applies for the wing-beat frequency of flying animals and to the fin-stroke frequency of diving animals like penguins and whales. The equation states that the wing/fin-beat frequency is proportional to the square root of the animal's mass divided by the wing area. Data for birds, insects, bats, and even a robotic bird-supplemented by data for whales and penguins that must swim to stay submerged-show that the constant of proportionality is to a good approximation the same across all species; thus the equation is universal. The wing/fin-beat frequency equation is derived by dimensional analysis, which is a standard method of reasoning in physics. We finally demonstrate that a mathematically even simpler expression without the animal mass does not apply.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeppe C Dyre
- Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Tina Hecksher
- Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark
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2
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Panigada V, Bodey TW, Friedlaender A, Druon JN, Huckstädt LA, Pierantonio N, Degollada E, Tort B, Panigada S. Targeting fin whale conservation in the North-Western Mediterranean Sea: insights on movements and behaviour from biologging and habitat modelling. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:231783. [PMID: 38455994 PMCID: PMC10915541 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Biologging and habitat modelling are key tools supporting the development of conservation measures and mitigating the effects of anthropogenic pressures on marine species. Here, we analysed satellite telemetry data and foraging habitat preferences in relation to chlorophyll-a productivity fronts to understand the movements and behaviour of endangered Mediterranean fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) during their spring-summer feeding aggregation in the North-Western Mediterranean Sea. Eleven individuals were equipped with Argos satellite transmitters across 3 years, with transmissions averaging 23.5 ± 11.3 days. Hidden Markov Models were used to identify foraging behaviour, revealing how individuals showed consistency in their use of seasonal core feeding grounds; this was supported by the distribution of potential foraging habitat. Importantly, tracked whales spent most of their time in areas with no explicit protected status within the study region. This highlights the need for enhanced time- and place-based conservation actions to mitigate the effects of anthropogenic impacts for this species, notably ship strike risk and noise disturbance in an area of exceptionally high maritime traffic levels. These findings strengthen the need to further assess critical habitats and Important Marine Mammal Areas that are crucial for focused conservation, management and mitigation efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viola Panigada
- Tethys Research Institute, c/o Acquario Civico, Viale G.B. Gadio 2, 20121 Milano, Italy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK
| | - Thomas W. Bodey
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK
| | - Ari Friedlaender
- Institute of Marine Sciences, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Jean-Noël Druon
- Joint Research Centre, (JRC), European Commission, Ispra, Italy
| | - Luis A. Huckstädt
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Nino Pierantonio
- Tethys Research Institute, c/o Acquario Civico, Viale G.B. Gadio 2, 20121 Milano, Italy
| | | | - Beatriu Tort
- Associació EDMAKTUB, 08393 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Simone Panigada
- Tethys Research Institute, c/o Acquario Civico, Viale G.B. Gadio 2, 20121 Milano, Italy
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3
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Fish FE, Nicastro AJ, Cardenas KL, Segre PS, Gough WT, Kahane-Rapport SR, St. Leger J, Goldbogen JA. Spin-leap performance by cetaceans is influenced by moment of inertia. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246433. [PMID: 38149677 PMCID: PMC10914021 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Cetaceans are capable of extraordinary locomotor behaviors in both water and air. Whales and dolphins can execute aerial leaps by swimming rapidly to the water surface to achieve an escape velocity. Previous research on spinner dolphins demonstrated the capability of leaping and completing multiple spins around their longitudinal axis with high angular velocities. This prior research suggested the slender body morphology of spinner dolphins together with the shapes and positions of their appendages allowed for rapid spins in the air. To test whether greater moments of inertia reduced spinning performance, videos and biologging data of cetaceans above and below the water surface were obtained. The principal factors affecting the number of aerial spins a cetacean can execute were moment of inertia and use of control surfaces for subsurface corkscrewing. For spinner dolphin, Pacific striped dolphin, bottlenose dolphin, minke whale and humpback whale, each with swim speeds of 6-7 m s-1, our model predicted that the number of aerial spins executable was 7, 2, 2, 0.76 and 1, respectively, which was consistent with observations. These data implied that the rate of subsurface corkscrewing was limited to 14.0, 6.8, 6.2, 2.2 and 0.75 rad s-1 for spinner dolphins, striped dolphins, bottlenose dolphins, minke whales and humpback whales, respectively. In our study, the moment of inertia of the cetaceans spanned a 21,000-fold range. The greater moments of inertia for the last four species produced large torques on control surfaces that limited subsurface corkscrewing motion and aerial maneuvers compared with spinner dolphins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank E. Fish
- Department of Biology, West Chester University, West Chester, PA 19383, USA
| | - Anthony J. Nicastro
- Department of Physics and Engineering, West Chester University, West Chester, PA 19383, USA
| | | | - Paolo S. Segre
- Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | - William T. Gough
- Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
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Sánchez-Rodríguez J, Raufaste C, Argentina M. Scaling the tail beat frequency and swimming speed in underwater undulatory swimming. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5569. [PMID: 37689714 PMCID: PMC10492801 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41368-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Undulatory swimming is the predominant form of locomotion in aquatic vertebrates. A myriad of animals of different species and sizes oscillate their bodies to propel themselves in aquatic environments with swimming speed scaling as the product of the animal length by the oscillation frequency. Although frequency tuning is the primary means by which a swimmer selects its speed, there is no consensus on the mechanisms involved. In this article, we propose scaling laws for undulatory swimmers that relate oscillation frequency to length by taking into account both the biological characteristics of the muscles and the interaction of the moving swimmer with its environment. Results are supported by an extensive literature review including approximately 1200 individuals of different species, sizes and swimming environments. We highlight a crossover in size around 0.5-1 m. Below this value, the frequency can be tuned between 2-20 Hz due to biological constraints and the interplay between slow and fast muscles. Above this value, the fluid-swimmer interaction must be taken into account and the frequency is inversely proportional to the length of the animal. This approach predicts a maximum swimming speed around 5-10 m.s-1 for large swimmers, consistent with the threshold to prevent bubble cavitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Sánchez-Rodríguez
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, INPHYNI, 17 Rue Julien Lauprêtre, Nice, 06200, France
- Departamento de Física Fundamental, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, 28040, Spain
- Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics and Instabilities, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Christophe Raufaste
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, INPHYNI, 17 Rue Julien Lauprêtre, Nice, 06200, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), 1 Rue Descartes, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Médéric Argentina
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, INPHYNI, 17 Rue Julien Lauprêtre, Nice, 06200, France.
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Bierlich KC, Kane A, Hildebrand L, Bird CN, Fernandez Ajo A, Stewart JD, Hewitt J, Hildebrand I, Sumich J, Torres LG. Downsized: gray whales using an alternative foraging ground have smaller morphology. Biol Lett 2023; 19:20230043. [PMID: 37554011 PMCID: PMC10410206 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2023.0043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Describing individual morphology and growth is key for identifying ecological niches and monitoring the health and fitness of populations. Eastern North Pacific ((ENP), approximately 16 650 individuals) gray whales primarily feed in the Arctic/sub-Arctic regions, while a small subgroup called the Pacific Coast Feeding Group (PCFG, approximately 212 individuals) instead feeds between northern California, USA and British Columbia, Canada. Evidence suggests PCFG whales have lower body condition than ENP whales. Here we investigate morphological differences (length, skull, and fluke span) and compare length-at-age growth curves between ENP and PCFG whales. We use ENP gray whale length-at-age data comprised of strandings, whaling, and aerial photogrammetry (1926-1997) for comparison to data from PCFG whales collected through non-invasive techniques (2016-2022) to estimate age (photo identification) and length (drone-based photogrammetry). We use Bayesian methods to incorporate uncertainty associated with morphological measurements (manual and photogrammetric) and age estimates. We find that while PCFG and ENP whales have similar growth rates, PCFG whales reach smaller asymptotic lengths. Additionally, PCFG whales have relatively smaller skulls and flukes than ENP whales. These findings represent a striking example of morphological adaptation that may facilitate PCFG whales accessing a foraging niche distinct from the Arctic foraging grounds of the broader ENP population.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. C. Bierlich
- Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna Lab, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - A. Kane
- Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna Lab, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - L. Hildebrand
- Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna Lab, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - C. N. Bird
- Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna Lab, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - A. Fernandez Ajo
- Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna Lab, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - J. D. Stewart
- Ocean Ecology Lab, Marine Mammal Institute, Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - J. Hewitt
- Department of Statistical Science, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - I. Hildebrand
- Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna Lab, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - J. Sumich
- Marine Mammal Institute, Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - L. G. Torres
- Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna Lab, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
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Cade DE, Kahane-Rapport SR, Gough WT, Bierlich KC, Linsky JMJ, Calambokidis J, Johnston DW, Goldbogen JA, Friedlaender AS. Minke whale feeding rate limitations suggest constraints on the minimum body size for engulfment filtration feeding. Nat Ecol Evol 2023; 7:535-546. [PMID: 36914772 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-023-01993-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Bulk filter feeding has enabled gigantism throughout evolutionary history. The largest animals, extant rorqual whales, utilize intermittent engulfment filtration feeding (lunge feeding), which increases in efficiency with body size, enabling their gigantism. The smallest extant rorquals (7-10 m minke whales), however, still exhibit short-term foraging efficiencies several times greater than smaller non-filter-feeding cetaceans, raising the question of why smaller animals do not utilize this foraging modality. We collected 437 h of bio-logging data from 23 Antarctic minke whales (Balaenoptera bonaerensis) to test the relationship of feeding rates (λf) to body size. Here, we show that while ultra-high nighttime λf (mean ± s.d.: 165 ± 40 lunges h-1; max: 236 lunges h-1; mean depth: 28 ± 46 m) were indistinguishable from predictions from observations of larger species, daytime λf (mean depth: 72 ± 72 m) were only 25-40% of predicted rates. Both λf were near the maxima allowed by calculated biomechanical, physiological and environmental constraints, but these temporal constraints meant that maximum λf was below the expected λf for animals smaller than ~5 m-the length of weaned minke whales. Our findings suggest that minimum size for specific filter-feeding body plans may relate broadly to temporal restrictions on filtration rate and have implications for the evolution of filter feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Cade
- Institute of Marine Science, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA.
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA, USA.
| | | | - William T Gough
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA, USA
| | - K C Bierlich
- Division of Marine Science and Conservation, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Beaufort, NC, USA
- Marine Mammal Institute, Hatfield Marine Science Center, Oregon State University, Newport, OR, USA
| | - Jacob M J Linsky
- Institute of Marine Science, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - David W Johnston
- Division of Marine Science and Conservation, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Beaufort, NC, USA
| | | | - Ari S Friedlaender
- Institute of Marine Science, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
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Gough WT, Cade DE, Czapanskiy MF, Potvin J, Fish FE, Kahane-Rapport SR, Savoca MS, Bierlich KC, Johnston DW, Friedlaender AS, Szabo A, Bejder L, Goldbogen JA. Fast and Furious: Energetic Tradeoffs and Scaling of High-Speed Foraging in Rorqual Whales. Integr Org Biol 2022; 4:obac038. [PMID: 36127894 PMCID: PMC9475666 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obac038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although gigantic body size and obligate filter feeding mechanisms have evolved in multiple vertebrate lineages (mammals and fishes), intermittent ram (lunge) filter feeding is unique to a specific family of baleen whales: rorquals. Lunge feeding is a high cost, high benefit feeding mechanism that requires the integration of unsteady locomotion (i.e., accelerations and maneuvers); the impact of scale on the biomechanics and energetics of this foraging mode continues to be the subject of intense study. The goal of our investigation was to use a combination of multi-sensor tags paired with UAS footage to determine the impact of morphometrics such as body size on kinematic lunging parameters such as fluking timing, maximum lunging speed, and deceleration during the engulfment period for a range of species from minke to blue whales. Our results show that, in the case of krill-feeding lunges and regardless of size, animals exhibit a skewed gradient between powered and fully unpowered engulfment, with fluking generally ending at the point of both the maximum lunging speed and mouth opening. In all cases, the small amounts of propulsive thrust generated by the tail were unable to overcome the high drag forces experienced during engulfment. Assuming this thrust to be minimal, we predicted the minimum speed of lunging across scale. To minimize the energetic cost of lunge feeding, hydrodynamic theory predicts slower lunge feeding speeds regardless of body size, with a lower boundary set by the ability of the prey to avoid capture. We used empirical data to test this theory and instead found that maximum foraging speeds remain constant and high (∼4 m s–1) across body size, even as higher speeds result in lower foraging efficiency. Regardless, we found an increasing relationship between body size and this foraging efficiency, estimated as the ratio of energetic gain from prey to energetic cost. This trend held across timescales ranging from a single lunge to a single day and suggests that larger whales are capturing more prey—and more energy—at a lower cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- William T Gough
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University , Pacific Grove, CA 94305, USA
| | - David E Cade
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University , Pacific Grove, CA 94305, USA
| | - Max F Czapanskiy
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University , Pacific Grove, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jean Potvin
- Saint Louis University , Saint Louis, MO 63103, USA
| | - Frank E Fish
- West Chester University , West Chester, PA 19383, USA
| | | | - Matthew S Savoca
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University , Pacific Grove, CA 94305, USA
| | - K C Bierlich
- Oregon State University , Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | | | | | - Andy Szabo
- Alaska Whale Foundation , Sitka, AK, 99835, USA
| | - Lars Bejder
- Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawaii at Manoa , Kaheohe, HI 96822, USA
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University , Aarhus 8000, Denmark
| | - Jeremy A Goldbogen
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University , Pacific Grove, CA 94305, USA
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Large size in aquatic tetrapods compensates for high drag caused by extreme body proportions. Commun Biol 2022; 5:380. [PMID: 35484197 PMCID: PMC9051157 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03322-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Various Mesozoic marine reptile lineages evolved streamlined bodies and efficient lift-based swimming, as seen in modern aquatic mammals. Ichthyosaurs had low-drag bodies, akin to modern dolphins, but plesiosaurs were strikingly different, with long hydrofoil-like limbs and greatly variable neck and trunk proportions. Using computational fluid dynamics, we explore the effect of this extreme morphological variation. We find that, independently of their body fineness ratio, plesiosaurs produced more drag than ichthyosaurs and modern cetaceans of equal mass due to their large limbs, but these differences were not significant when body size was accounted for. Additionally, necks longer than twice the trunk length can substantially increase the cost of forward swimming, but this effect was cancelled out by the evolution of big trunks. Moreover, fast rates in the evolution of neck proportions in the long-necked elasmosaurs suggest that large trunks might have released the hydrodynamic constraints on necks thus allowing their extreme enlargement.
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Abstract
Remote sensing is a very powerful tool that has been used to identify, map and monitor Antarctic features and processes for nearly one century. Satellite remote sensing plays the main role for about the last five decades, as it is the only way to provide multitemporal views at continental scale. But the emergence of small consumer-grade unoccupied aerial vehicles (UAVs) over the past two decades has paved the way for data in unprecedented detail. This has been also verified by an increasing noticeable interest in Antarctica by the incorporation of UAVs in the field activities in diversified research topics. This paper presents a comprehensive review about the use of UAVs in scientific activities in Antarctica. It is based on the analysis of 190 scientific publications published in peer-reviewed journals and proceedings of conferences which are organised into six main application topics: Terrestrial, Ice and Snow, Fauna, Technology, Atmosphere and Others. The analysis encompasses a detailed overview of the activities, identifying advantages and difficulties, also evaluating future possibilities and challenges for expanding the use of UAV in the field activities. The relevance of using UAVs to support numerous and diverse scientific activities in Antarctica becomes very clear after analysing this set of scientific publications, as it is revolutionising the remote acquisition of new data with much higher detail, from inaccessible or difficult to access regions, in faster and cheaper ways. Many of the advances can be seen in the terrestrial areas (detailed 3D mapping; vegetation mapping, discrimination and health assessment; periglacial forms characterisation), ice and snow (more detailed topography, depth and features of ice-sheets, glaciers and sea-ice), fauna (counting penguins, seals and flying birds and detailed morphometrics) and in atmosphere studies (more detailed meteorological measurements and air-surface couplings). This review has also shown that despite the low environmental impact of UAV-based surveys, the increasing number of applications and use, may lead to impacts in the most sensitive Antarctic ecosystems. Hence, we call for an internationally coordinated effort to for planning and sharing UAV data in Antarctica, which would reduce environmental impacts, while extending research outcomes.
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Innovative Energy-Saving Propulsion System for Low-Speed Biomimetic Underwater Vehicles. ENERGIES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/en14248418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This article covers research on an innovative propulsion system design for a Biomimetic Unmanned Underwater Vehicle (BUUV) operating at low speeds. The experiment was conducted on a laboratory test water tunnel equipped with specialised sensor equipment to assess the Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) and energy consumption of two different types of propulsion systems. The experimental data contrast the undulating with the drag-based propulsion system. The additional joint in the drag-based propulsion system is intended to increase thrust and decrease energy input. The tests were conducted at a variety of fins oscillation frequencies and fluid velocities. The experiments demonstrate that, in the region of low-speed forward movement, the efficiency of the propulsion system with the additional joint is greater.
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