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Sun GJ, Yang SF, Ti YF, Guo GD, Fan GT, Chen FR, Xu SG, Zhao JN. Influence of Ceramic Debris on Osteoblast Behaviors: An In Vivo Study. Orthop Surg 2019; 11:770-776. [PMID: 31464084 PMCID: PMC6819169 DOI: 10.1111/os.12496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Wear-induced aseptic loosening has been accepted as one of the main reasons for failure of total hip arthroplasty. Ceramic wear debris is generated following prosthesis implantation and plays an important part in the upregulation of inflammatory factors in total hip arthroplasty. The present study investigates the influence of ceramic debris on osteoblasts and inflammatory factors. METHODS Ceramic debris was prepared by mechanical grinding of an aluminum femoral head and added to cultures of MC3T3-E subclone 14 cells at different concentrations (i.e. 0, 5, 10, and 15 μg/mL). Cell proliferation was evaluated using a Cell Counting Kit (CCK-8), and cell differentiation was assessed by mRNA expression of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), osteocalcin (OCN), and osteopontin (OPN). In addition, cell bio-mineralization was evaluated through alizarin red S staining, and release of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) was measured through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Furthermore, mRNA expression of Smad1, Smad4, and Smad5 and protein expression of phosphorylated Smad1, Smad4, and Smad5 were measured by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blotting. RESULTS The ceramic debris had irregular shapes and sizes, and analysis of the size distribution using a particle size analyzer indicated that approximately 90% of the ceramic debris was smaller than 3.2 μm (2.0 ± 0.4 μm), which is considered clinically relevant. The results for mRNA expression of ALP, OCN, and OPN and alizarin red S staining indicated that cell differentiation and bio-mineralization were significantly inhibited by the presence of ceramic debris at all tested concentrations (P < 0.05, and the values decreased gradually with the increase of ceramic debris concentration), but the results of the CCK-8 assay showed that cell proliferation was not significantly affected (P > 0.05; there was no significant difference between the groups at 1, 3, and 5 days). In addition, the results of ELISA, RT-PCR, and western blotting demonstrated that ceramic debris significantly promoted the release of inflammatory factors, including TNF-α, IL-β, and IL-6 (P < 0.05, and the values increased gradually with the increase of ceramic debris concentration), and also greatly reduced the mRNA expression of Smad1, Smad4, and Smad5 (the values decreased gradually with the increase of ceramic debris concentration) as well as protein expression of phosphorylated Smad1, Smad4, and Smad5. CONCLUSION Ceramic debris may affect differentiation and bio-mineralization of MC3T3-E subclone 14 cells through the bone morphogenetic protein/Smad signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Jing Sun
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Jinling Hospital, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Shu-Feng Yang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Nanjing 81th Hospital of PLA, Nanjing, China
| | - Yun-Fan Ti
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Jinling Hospital, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Guo-Dong Guo
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Jinling Hospital, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Geng-Tao Fan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Jinling Hospital, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Feng-Rong Chen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Xiamen 174th Hospital of PLA, Xiamen, China
| | - Shao-Gang Xu
- Department of Emergency Surgery, Zhengzhou Orthopaedic Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jian-Ning Zhao
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Jinling Hospital, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, China
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Liu W, Li Z, Zheng L, Zhang X, Liu P, Yang T, Han B. Electrospun fibrous silk fibroin/poly(L-lactic acid) scaffold for cartilage tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2016; 13:516-526. [PMID: 30603432 PMCID: PMC6170845 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-016-9099-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2015] [Revised: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
For successful tissue engineering of articular cartilage, a scaffold with mechanical properties that match those of natural cartilage as closely as possible is needed. In the present study, we prepared a fibrous silk fibroin (SF)/poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) scaffold via electrospinning and investigated the morphological, mechanical, and degradation properties of the scaffolds fabricated using different electrospinning conditions, including collection distance, working voltage, and the SF:PLLA mass ratio. In addition, in vitro cell-scaffold interactions were evaluated in terms of chondrocyte adhesion to the scaffolds as well as the cytotoxicity and cytocompatibility of the scaffolds. The optimum electrospinning conditions for generating a fibrous SF/PLLA scaffold with the best surface morphology (ordered alignment and suitable diameter) and tensile strength (~1.5 MPa) were a collection distance of 20 cm, a working voltage of 15 kV, and a SF:PLLA mass ratio of S50P50. The degradation rate of the SF/PLLA scaffolds was found to be determined by the SF:PLLA mass ratio, and it could be increased by reducing the PLLA proportion. Furthermore, chondrocytes spread well on the fibrous SF/PLLA scaffolds and secreted extracellular matrix, indicating good adhesion to the scaffold. The cytotoxicity of SF/PLLA scaffold extract to chondrocytes over 24 and 48 h in culture was low, indicating that the SF/PLLA scaffolds are biocompatible. Chondrocytes grew well on the SF/PLLA scaffold after 1, 3, 5, and 7 days of direct contact, indicating the good cytocompatibility of the scaffold. These results demonstrate that the fibrous SF/PLLA scaffold represents a promising composite material for use in cartilage tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Liu
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Stomatology, Jilin University, 1500 Tsinghua Road, Changchun, 130021 China
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, Changchun, China
| | - Zhengqiang Li
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Stomatology, Jilin University, 1500 Tsinghua Road, Changchun, 130021 China
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, Changchun, China
| | - Lu Zheng
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhang
- The Affiliated Hospital of Stomatology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Peng Liu
- Department of Stomatology, School of Medicine, Yanbian University, Yanji, China
| | - Ting Yang
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Bing Han
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Stomatology, Jilin University, 1500 Tsinghua Road, Changchun, 130021 China
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, Changchun, China
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Zeng JZ, Wang ZZ, Ma LF, Meng H, Yu HM, Cheng WH, Zhang YK, Guo A. Increased receptor activator of nuclear factor κβ ligand/osteoprotegerin ratio exacerbates cartilage destruction in osteoarthritis in vitro. Exp Ther Med 2016; 12:2778-2782. [PMID: 27698783 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2016.3638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease characterized by progressive cartilage destruction, matrix degradation and bony changes. Subchondral bone alterations in osteoarthritis are associated with cartilage destruction. It has previously been demonstrated that osteoprotegerin (OPG) and receptor activator of nuclear factor κβ ligand (RANKL) mediate this process. The RANKL/OPG ratio is altered in OA chondrocytes compared with normal chondrocytes. In the pathogenesis of OA, abnormal expression levels of matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13) are secreted by chondrocytes has a vital role in the progression of cartilage erosion. In the present study, the effect of various RANKL/OPG ratios on MMP-13 expression levels was investigated in interleukin-1β-stimulated SW1353 human chondrosarcoma cells. Cell viability was assessed by MTT assay and MMP-13 mRNA and protein expression levels were analyzed by quantitative reverse-transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction, ELISA and western blot analyses, respectively. The results demonstrated that an increase in MMP-13 mRNA and protein expression levels was observed with increasing RANKL/OPG ratio. These findings suggest that this mechanism may be used as a novel therapeutic strategy against OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Zhou Zeng
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China; Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
| | - Zhen-Zhong Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
| | - Li-Feng Ma
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
| | - Hai Meng
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
| | - Hao-Miao Yu
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
| | - Wen-Hao Cheng
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
| | - Ya-Kui Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
| | - Ai Guo
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
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Shearwood-Porter N, Browne M, Milton JA, Cooper MJ, Palmer MR, Latham JM, Wood RJK, Cook RB. Damage mechanisms at the cement-implant interface of polished cemented femoral stems. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2016; 105:2027-2033. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.33739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Browne
- Bioengineering Science Research Group; University of Southampton; Southampton UK
| | - James A. Milton
- School of Ocean and Earth Science; University of Southampton, National Oceanography Centre; Southampton UK
| | - Matthew J. Cooper
- School of Ocean and Earth Science; University of Southampton, National Oceanography Centre; Southampton UK
| | - Martin R. Palmer
- School of Ocean and Earth Science; University of Southampton, National Oceanography Centre; Southampton UK
| | - Jeremy M. Latham
- Southampton Orthopaedic Centre for Arthroplasty and Revision Surgery (SOCARS); Southampton General Hospital; Southampton UK
| | - Robert J. K. Wood
- National Centre for Advanced Tribology at Southampton (nCATS); University of Southampton; Highfield, Southampton UK
| | - Richard B. Cook
- National Centre for Advanced Tribology at Southampton (nCATS); University of Southampton; Highfield, Southampton UK
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Li Z, Liu P, Yang T, Sun Y, You Q, Li J, Wang Z, Han B. Composite poly(l-lactic-acid)/silk fibroin scaffold prepared by electrospinning promotes chondrogenesis for cartilage tissue engineering. J Biomater Appl 2016; 30:1552-65. [PMID: 27059497 DOI: 10.1177/0885328216638587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Nanofibrous materials produced by electrospinning have attracted considerable attention from researchers in regenerative medicine. A combination of nanofibrous scaffold and chondrocytes is considered promising for repair of cartilage defect or damage. In the present study, we fabricated a poly(l-lactic-acid) (PLLA)/silk fibroin (SF) nanofibrous scaffold by electrospinning and evaluated its chondrogenic potential. The PLLA/SF nanofibers were characterized for diameter, surface wettability, swelling ratio, and tensile strength. Throughin vitroexperiments, PLLA/SF scaffold-chondrocyte interactions were investigated relative to the unmodified PLLA scaffold with regard to cellular adhesion, spreading, and proliferation by scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy, and through analyses of DNA, sulfated glycosaminoglycan, and collagen. In addition, hematoxylin-eosin and Alcian blue-nuclear fast red staining were used to observe growth of chondrocytes, and secretion and distribution of cartilage-specific extracellular matrices in the scaffolds. Expressions of cartilage-related genes (collagen II, aggrecan, sox9, collagen I, and collagen X) were detected by real-time quantitative PCR. The PLLA/SF scaffold had better hydrophilicity, and could support chondrocytes adhesion and spreading more effectively than the unmodified PLLA scaffold. Chondrocytes secreted more cartilage-specific extracellular matrices and maintained their phenotype on the PLLA/SF scaffold. So it is concluded that the PLLA/SF scaffold is more conducive toin vitroformation of cartilage-like new tissues than the unmodified PLLA scaffold, and may be a promising material in cartilage tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengqiang Li
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun, China Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, Changchun, China
| | - Peng Liu
- Department of Stomatology, School of Medicine, Yanbian University, Yanji, China
| | - Ting Yang
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Ying Sun
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun, China Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, Changchun, China
| | - Qi You
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun, China Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, Changchun, China
| | - Jiale Li
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun, China Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, Changchun, China
| | - Zilin Wang
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun, China Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, Changchun, China
| | - Bing Han
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun, China Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, Changchun, China
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Peng W, Zheng W, Shi K, Wang W, Shao Y, Zhang D. An
in vivo
evaluation of PLLA/PLLA-gHA nano-composite for internal fixation of mandibular bone fractures. Biomed Mater 2015; 10:065007. [DOI: 10.1088/1748-6041/10/6/065007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Orthopaedic implant failure: aseptic implant loosening–the contribution and future challenges of mouse models in translational research. Clin Sci (Lond) 2014; 127:277-93. [DOI: 10.1042/cs20130338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Aseptic loosening as a result of wear debris is considered to be the main cause of long-term implant failure in orthopaedic surgery and improved biomaterials for bearing surfaces decreases significantly the release of micrometric wear particles. Increasingly, in-depth knowledge of osteoimmunology highlights the role of nanoparticles and ions released from some of these new bearing couples, opening up a new era in the comprehension of aseptic loosening. Mouse models have been essential in the progress made in the early comprehension of pathophysiology and in testing new therapeutic agents for particle-induced osteolysis. However, despite this encouraging progress, there is still no valid clinical alternative to revision surgery. The present review provides an update of the most commonly used bearing couples, the current concepts regarding particle–cell interactions and the approaches used to study the biology of periprosthetic osteolysis. It also discusses the contribution and future challenges of mouse models for successful translation of the preclinical progress into clinical applications.
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Bond strength analysis of the bone cement- stem interface of hip arthroplasties. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2014; 7:153-9. [PMID: 24461531 DOI: 10.1016/s1995-7645(14)60013-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Revised: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study and establish the preliminary linear and modified models for the interface shear mechanics performance between implant and bone cement and to explore its damage significance. METHOD The loosening research between artificial hip joint prosthesis stem and bone cement interface performance can be evaluated by the push-in test. Based on the debonding performance test, the analytical expressions of the average load and displacement from the debonding failure and splitting failure process were deduced and determined. The correlations of the expressions of the average load-displacement and statistical experimental data were analyzed. RESULTS It demonstrated that the interface debonding failure mechanical model could be characterized as interface bond strength mechanical performance. Based on analysis of models and experimental data by the three statistical analysis methods, the results indicated the modified model could be better represented by the interfacial debonding strength properties. The bond stress τ and relative sliding s distribution along the embedment regional were coupling affected by both pressure arch effect and shear lag effect in bone cement. Two stress peaks of implant have been found at the distance from 0.175La loading tip to 0.325La free tip, which also verified the early loosening clinical reports for the proximal and latter region. As the bone cement arch effect, the bond stress peak tend to move to the free tip when the debonding failure would be changed into the splitting failure, which presents a preliminary study on the mechanism of early debonding failure for the stem-cement interface. CONCLUSIONS Functional models of the stem-bone cement interfacial debonding failure are developed to analyze the relevant mechanism. The different locational titanium alloy stress, and the interfacial bond stress and the relative slides are evaluated to acquire a guide of the different positions of interfacial damage. The coupling effect which is original from the pressure arch and the interfacial shear hysteresis cumulative effect has influence on the interfacial debonding and damage process.
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Zhang HY, Luo JB, Zhou M, Zhang Y, Huang YL. Biotribological properties at the stem-cement interface lubricated with different media. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2013; 20:209-16. [PMID: 23518686 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Revised: 01/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Debonding of the stem-cement interface occurs inevitably in-vivo under physiological loading, and pseudo-synovial fluid is subsequently pumped into this interface, serving as the lubricant. However, the influence of protein adsorption onto the femoral stem surface has not been well taken into consideration in previous in vitro studies. MATERIALS AND METHODS The biotribological properties at the stem-cement interface were investigated through a series of fretting frictional tests using polished stainless steel 316L stem and smooth bone cement, lubricated by three different media at body temperature, i.e. 100% calf serum, 25% calf serum, and 0.9% saline solution. The surface characterization of the femoral stem was evaluated sequentially using optical microscope, optical interferometer, scanning electron microscope, and Raman spectroscopy. RESULTS The friction coefficient generally kept stable during the test, and the minimum value (0.254) was obtained when 100% calf serum was used as the lubricant. Slight scratches were detected within the contact area for the stainless steel 316L stems lubricated by 100% calf serum and 25% calf serum, which was further surrounded by the adsorbed protein film with alveolate feature. Additionally, a wear scar was present within the contact area when 0.9% saline solution was used as the lubricant. CONCLUSIONS Protein adsorption onto the stainless steel 316L stem surface affected the biotribological properties at the stem-cement interface under oscillatory fretting mechanism. Generation of wear debris at the stem-cement interface may be postponed by modification of physicochemical properties of the femoral stem to promote protein adsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Y Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Precision Instruments and Mechanology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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Zhang HY, Blunt LA, Jiang XQ, Fleming LT, Barrans SM. The influence of bone cement type on production of fretting wear on the femoral stem surface: a preliminary study. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2012; 27:666-72. [PMID: 22459056 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2012.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2011] [Revised: 02/23/2012] [Accepted: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been reported that bone cement correlates with survivorship of cemented total hip replacement. However, little research has been published to investigate the influence of bone cement type on production of fretting wear on the femoral stem. METHODS In the present study, we performed six in vitro wear simulations using the same type of femoral stem (polished Exeter V40™) and three different bone cements (Simplex P, Palacos R, and CMW 3). FINDINGS Fretting wear was consistently reproduced on the stem surface and the wear locations compared well with the results of retrieval studies. Selected 3D surface parameters were utilised to quantitatively evaluate fretting wear and no significant difference was identified in terms of fretting wear severity between these simulations. The bone cements were all badly damaged in those sites contacting the fretting wear areas on the femoral stem. Additionally, there were plenty of wear debris present on the cement surface, and the energy dispersive X-ray analysis confirmed that it was just cement particles for Simplex P bone cement, whilst it included metallic particles for Palacos R and CMW 3 bone cements. INTERPRETATION This preliminary study shed some light on the influence of bone cement type on production of fretting wear on the femoral stem surface but further research is needed to gain a better understanding on this issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Y Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Precision Instruments and Mechanology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
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Zhang H, Blunt L, Jiang X, Brown L, Barrans S. The Significance of the Micropores at the Stem–Cement Interface in Total Hip Replacement. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2012; 22:845-56. [DOI: 10.1163/092050610x540495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H. Zhang
- a State Key Laboratory of Tribology, School of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, P. R. China; Centre for Precision Technologies, School of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK.
| | - L. Blunt
- b Centre for Precision Technologies, School of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK
| | - X. Jiang
- c Centre for Precision Technologies, School of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK
| | - L. Brown
- d Centre for Precision Technologies, School of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK
| | - S. Barrans
- e Centre for Precision Technologies, School of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK
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