Optimising the synthesis, polymer membrane encapsulation and photoreduction performance of Ru(II)- and Ir(III)-bis(terpyridine) cytochrome c bioconjugates

Ruthenium(II) and iridium(III) bis(terpyridine) complexes were prepared with maleimide functionalities in order to site-specifically modify yeast iso-1 cytochrome c possessing a single cysteine residue available for modification (CYS102). Single X-ray crystal structures were solved for aniline and maleimide Ru(II) 3 and Ru(II) 4, respectively, providing detailed structural detail of the complexes. Light-activated bioconjugates prepared from Ru(II) 4 in the presence of tris(2-carboxyethyl)-phosphine (TCEP) significantly improved yields from 6% to 27%. Photoinduced electron transfer studies of Ru(II)-cyt c in bulk solution and polymer membrane encapsulated specimens were performed using EDTA as a sacrificial electron donor. It was found that membrane encapsulation of Ru(II)-cyt c in PS140-b-PAA48 resulted in a quantum efficiency of 1.1 ± 0.3 × 10(-3), which was a two-fold increase relative to the bulk. Moreover, Ir(III)-cyt c bioconjugates showed a quantum efficiency of 3.8 ± 1.9 × 10(-1), equivalent to a ∼640-fold increase relative to bulk Ru(II)-cyt c.

Synthesis and room temperature photo-induced electron transfer in biologically active bis(terpyridine)ruthenium(II)-cytochrome c bioconjugates and the effect of solvents on the bioconjugation of cytochrome c

Photo-active bis(terpyridine)ruthenium(ii) chromophores were synthesised and attached to the redox enzyme iso-1 cytochrome c in a mixed solvent system to form photo-induced bioconjugates in greater than 40% yield after purification. The effects of up to 20% (v/v) of acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran, dimethylformamide, or dimethyl sulfoxide at 4, 25 and 35 degrees C on the stability and biological activity of cytochrome c and its reactivity towards the model compound 4,4'-dithiodipyridine (DTDP) was measured. The second-order rate constant for the DTDP reaction was found to range between k = 2.5-4.3 M(-1) s(-1) for reactions with 5% organic solvent added compared to k = 5.6 M(-1) s(-1) in pure water at 25 degrees C. Use of 20% solvent generally results in significant protein oxidation, and 20% acetonitrile and tetrahydrofuran in particular result in significant protein dimerization, which competes with the bioconjugation reaction. Cyclic voltammetry studies indicated that the rate of electron transfer to the heme in solution was reduced in the bis(terpyridine)ruthenium(ii) cytochrome c bioconjugates compared to unmodified cytochrome c. Steady-state fluorescence studies on these bioconjugates showed that energy or electron transfer is taking place between the bis(terpyridine)ruthenium(ii) chromophores and cytochrome c. The bis(terpyridine)ruthenium(ii) cytochrome c bioconjugates demonstrate room temperature photo-activated electron transfer from the bis(terpyridine)ruthenium(ii) donor to the protein acceptor. Two sacrificial donors were used; in 50% glycerol, the bioconjugates were reduced in about 15 min while in 20 mM EDTA the bioconjugates were fully reduced in less than 5 min upon irradiation with a xenon lamp source. Under these conditions, the reduction of the non-covalent mixture of cytochrome c and bis(terpyridine)ruthenium(ii) mixtures took over 30 min. Control experiments showed that the photo-induced reduction of cytochrome c only occurs in the absence of oxygen and presence of a sacrificial donor. These results are encouraging for future incorporation of these bioconjugates in light-responsive bioelectronic circuits, including photo-activated biosensors and biofuel cells.

Photoinduced reduction of catalytically and biologically active Ru(ii)bisterpyridine–cytochrome c bioconjugates

Ruthenium(II)bisterpyridine chromophores were covalently linked to iso-1 cytochrome c from yeast to create light-activated donor-acceptor bioconjugates.

Aggregation Behavior of Giant Amphiphiles Prepared by Cofactor Reconstitution

We report on biohybrid surfactants, termed "giant amphiphiles", in which a protein or an enzyme acts as the polar head group and a synthetic polymer as the apolar tail. It is demonstrated that the modification of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and myoglobin (Mb) with an apolar polymer chain through the cofactor reconstitution method yields giant amphiphiles that form spherical aggregates (vesicles) in aqueous solution. Both HRP and Mb retain their original functionality when modified with a single polystyrene chain, but reconstitution has an effect on their activities. In the case of HRP the enzymatic activity decreases and for Mb the stability of the dioxygen myoglobin (oxy-Mb) complex is reduced, which is probably the result of a disturbed binding of the heme in the apo-protein or a reduced access of the substrate to the active site of the enzyme or protein.

Fully integrated biocatalytic electrodes based on bioaffinity interactions

Integrated bioelectrocatalytically active electrodes are assembled by the deposition of enzymes onto respective electrically contacted affinity matrices and further cross-linking of the enzyme monolayers. A catalyst-NAD(+)-dyad for the binding of the NAD(+)-dependent enzymes and cytochrome-like molecules for the binding of the heme-protein-dependent enzymes are used to construct integrated electrically contacted biocatalytic systems. NAD(+)-dependent lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is assembled onto a pyrroloquinoline quinone-NAD+ monolayer. The redox-active monolayer is organized via covalent attachment of pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) to a cystamine monolayer associated with a Au-electrode, followed by covalent linkage of N6-(2-aminoethyl)-NAD+ to the monolayer. The interface modified with the PQQ-NAD(+)-dyad provides temporary affinity binding for LDH and allows cross-linking of the enzyme monolayer. The cross-linked LDH is bioelectrocatalytically active towards oxidation of lactate. The bioelectrocatalyzed process involves the PQQ-mediated oxidation of the immobilized NADH. Integrated, electrically contacted bioelectrodes are produced by the affinity binding and further cross-linking of nitrate reductase (NR) (cytochrome-dependent, E.C. 1.9.6.1 from E. coli) or CoII-protoporphyrin IX reconstituted myoglobin (CoII-Mb) atop the microperoxidase-11 (MP-11) monolayer associated with a Au-electrode. The MP-11 monolayer provides an affinity interface for the temporary binding of the enzymes, that allows the cross-linkage of the enzyme molecules. The MP-11 assembly acts as electron transfer mediator for the reduction of the secondary enzyme layer. The integrated bioelectrodes consisting of NR and CoII-Mb show catalytic activities for NO3- reduction and acetylene-dicarboxylic acid hydrogenation, respectively. Two FeIII-protoporphyrin IX units are reconstituted into a four alpha-helix bundle de novo protein assembled as a monolayer on a Au-electrode. Vectorial electron transfer proceeds in the synthetic heme-protein monolayer. Cross-linking of an affinity complex generated between the FeIII-protoporphyrin IX reconstituted de novo protein monolayer and NR yields an integrated, electrically contacted enzyme electrode that stimulates the bioelectrocatalyzed reduction of nitrate.

Design and Semisynthesis of Photoactive Myoglobin Bearing Ruthenium Tris(2,2'-bipyridine) Using Cofactor-Reconstitution

A new strategy for semisynthesis of a photoactivatable redox protein is described. Three protohemin molecules with ruthenium tris(2,2'-bipyridine) attached by different spacers were synthesized. The Ru(bpy)(3)-protohemins were incorporated into the heme crevice of apomyoglobin (apo-Mb) to yield semisynthetic Mbs carrying Ru(bpy)(3) as a photosensitizer (Ru(bpy)(3)-Mb). The photoactivation properties and the reaction mechanisms of Ru(bpy)(3)-Mbs were investigated by steady-state photoirradiation and laser flash photolysis. The photoactivation of Ru(bpy)(3)-Mbs was spectrophotometrically demonstrated by comparison with an intermolecular control, namely an equimolar mixture of Ru(bpy)(3) and native Mb. The spacer structure considerably influenced net activation efficiency over a wide pH range as measured by steady-state visible light irradiation and quantum yield. Laser flash photolysis yielded the rate of the photoinduced electron transfer (ET) from the lifetime of the excited Ru(bpy)(3) (k(et) = 4.4 x 10(7) s(-)(1) for Mb(1b) and k(et) = 3.7 x 10(7) s(-)(1) for Mb(1c)) and the back ET rate (k(back) = (2.0-3.7) x 10(7) s(-)(1) for Mb(1b) and k(back) = (1.4-2.4) x 10(7) s(-)(1) for Mb(1c)) from the decay of the transient absorption. These data consistently explained the results of the net photoreaction as follows. (i) The intermolecular control system was less photoactivated because little ET occurred from the excited state of Ru(bpy)(3) to Mb. (ii) The short lifetime of the charge-separated state after photoinduced ET greatly decreased the photoactivation efficiency of Ru(bpy)(3)-Mb with the shortest spacer. (iii) The photochemical and photophysical data of the other two Ru(bpy)(3)-Mb derivatives (the net photoreaction, quantum yield, and ET/back ET rates) were essentially identical, indicating that flexible spacers consisting of oxyethylene units do not rigidly fix the distance between Ru(bpy)(3) and the heme center of Mb. In addition, Ru(bpy)(3)-Mbs were highly photoactivated under aerobic conditions in a manner similar to that under anaerobic conditions, although O(2) usually quenches the photoexcited state of Ru(bpy)(3). This was probably due to the accelerated intramolecular ET from Ru(bpy)(3) to heme, not to O(2) in Ru(bpy)(3)-Mbs. We therefore showed that visible light affects the content of O(2)-bound Mb even in air.