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Kafer GR, Cesare AJ. A Survey of Essential Genome Stability Genes Reveals That Replication Stress Mitigation Is Critical for Peri-Implantation Embryogenesis. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:416. [PMID: 32548123 PMCID: PMC7274024 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Murine development demands that pluripotent epiblast stem cells in the peri-implantation embryo increase from approximately 120 to 14,000 cells between embryonic days (E) 4.5 and E7.5. This is possible because epiblast stem cells can complete cell cycles in under 3 h in vivo. To ensure conceptus fitness, epiblast cells must undertake this proliferative feat while maintaining genome integrity. How epiblast cells maintain genome health under such an immense proliferation demand remains unclear. To illuminate the contribution of genome stability pathways to early mammalian development we systematically reviewed knockout mouse data from 347 DDR and repair associated genes. Cumulatively, the data indicate that while many DNA repair functions are dispensable in embryogenesis, genes encoding replication stress response and homology directed repair factors are essential specifically during the peri-implantation stage of early development. We discuss the significance of these findings in the context of the unique proliferative demands placed on pluripotent epiblast stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia R Kafer
- Genome Integrity Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, The University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| | - Anthony J Cesare
- Genome Integrity Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, The University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
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2
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Bhin J, Jeong HS, Kim JS, Shin JO, Hong KS, Jung HS, Kim C, Hwang D, Kim KS. PGC-Enriched miRNAs Control Germ Cell Development. Mol Cells 2015; 38:895-903. [PMID: 26442865 PMCID: PMC4625071 DOI: 10.14348/molcells.2015.0146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-coding microRNAs (miRNAs) regulate the translation of target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) involved in the growth and development of a variety of cells, including primordial germ cells (PGCs) which play an essential role in germ cell development. However, the target mRNAs and the regulatory networks influenced by miRNAs in PGCs remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate a novel miRNAs control PGC development through targeting mRNAs involved in various cellular pathways. We reveal the PGC-enriched expression patterns of nine miRNAs, including miR-10b, -18a, -93, -106b, -126-3p, -127, -181a, -181b, and -301, using miRNA expression analysis along with mRNA microarray analysis in PGCs, embryonic gonads, and postnatal testes. These miRNAs are highly expressed in PGCs, as demonstrated by Northern blotting, miRNA in situ hybridization assay, and miRNA qPCR analysis. This integrative study utilizing mRNA microarray analysis and miRNA target prediction demonstrates the regulatory networks through which these miRNAs regulate their potential target genes during PGC development. The elucidated networks of miRNAs disclose a coordinated molecular mechanism by which these miRNAs regulate distinct cellular pathways in PGCs that determine germ cell development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhyuk Bhin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 790-784,
Korea
| | - Hoe-Su Jeong
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Department of Biomedical Science, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791,
Korea
| | - Jong Soo Kim
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Department of Biomedical Science, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791,
Korea
| | - Jeong Oh Shin
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Oral Science Research Center, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University, College of Dentistry, Seoul 120-752,
Korea
| | - Ki Sung Hong
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Department of Biomedical Science, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791,
Korea
| | - Han-Sung Jung
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Oral Science Research Center, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University, College of Dentistry, Seoul 120-752,
Korea
| | - Changhoon Kim
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Department of Biomedical Science, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791,
Korea
| | - Daehee Hwang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 790-784,
Korea
- Department of New Biology and Center for Plant Aging Research, Institute for Basic Science, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science & Technology, Daegu 711-873,
Korea
| | - Kye-Seong Kim
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Department of Biomedical Science, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791,
Korea
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Myocardin-A enhances expression of promyogenic genes without depressing telomerase activity in adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Int J Cardiol 2013; 167:2912-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Revised: 07/15/2012] [Accepted: 07/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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4
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From in vitro culture to in vivo models to study testis development and spermatogenesis. Cell Tissue Res 2012; 349:691-702. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-012-1457-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2011] [Accepted: 05/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Rappolee DA, Xie Y, Slater JA, Zhou S, Puscheck EE. Toxic stress prioritizes and imbalances stem cell differentiation: implications for new biomarkers and in vitro toxicology tests. Syst Biol Reprod Med 2012; 58:33-40. [PMID: 22239079 DOI: 10.3109/19396368.2011.647381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
This hypothesis and review introduces rules of stem cell stress responses that provide biomarkers and alternative testing that replaces or reduces gestational tests using whole animals. These rules for the stress responses of cultured stem cells validate the organismal strategy of the stress response and show that it emulates what must happen if the conceptus implants during a response to stress in vivo. Specifically there is a profound threshold during a stress dose response where stem cell accumulation is significantly reduced. Below this threshold stress enzymes manage the stress response by converting anabolic to catabolic processes and by suppressing apoptosis, without affecting differentiation. However above this threshold the stem cell survival response converts to an organismal survival response where stress enzymes switch to new substrates and mediate loss of potency factors, gain of early essential differentiated lineages, and suppression of later essential lineages. Stressed stem cells 'compensate' for lower accumulation rates by differentiating a higher fraction of cells, and the organismal survival response further enhances adaptation by prioritizing the differentiation of early essential lineages. Thus compensatory and prioritized differentiation and the sets of markers produced are part of a response of cultured embryos and stem cells that emulate what must happen during implantation of a stressed gestation. Knowledge of these markers and use of stressed stem cell assays in culture should replace or reduce the number of animals needed for developmental toxicity and should produce biomarkers for stressed development in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Rappolee
- CS Mott Center for Human Growth and Development, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Philip Avner
- Mouse Molecular Genetics Unit, Developmental Biology Department, CNRS URA 2578, Institut Pasteur, F-75015 Paris, France;
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Doss MX, Gaspar JA, Winkler J, Hescheler J, Schulz H, Sachinidis A. Specific Gene Signatures and Pathways in Mesodermal Cells and Their Derivatives Derived from Embryonic Stem Cells. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2011; 8:43-54. [DOI: 10.1007/s12015-011-9263-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Abstract
Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are embryonic progenitors for the gametes. In the gastrulating mouse embryo, a small group of cells begin expressing a unique set of genes and so commit to the germline. Over the next 3-5 days, these PGCs migrate anteriorly and increase rapidly in number via mitotic division before colonizing the newly formed gonads. PGCs then express a different set of unique genes, their inherited epigenetic imprint is erased and an individual methylation imprint is established, and for female PGCs, the silent X chromosome is reactivated. At this point, germ cells (GCs) commit to either a female or male sexual lineage, denoted by meiosis entry and mitotic arrest, respectively. This developmental program is determined by cues emanating from the somatic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Ewen
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Development, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
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Itman C, Miyamoto Y, Young J, Jans D, Loveland K. Nucleocytoplasmic transport as a driver of mammalian gametogenesis. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2009; 20:607-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2009.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2009] [Revised: 04/29/2009] [Accepted: 05/04/2009] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Deshpande AM, Dai YS, Kim Y, Kim J, Kimlin L, Gao K, Wong DT. Cdk2ap1 is required for epigenetic silencing of Oct4 during murine embryonic stem cell differentiation. J Biol Chem 2008; 284:6043-7. [PMID: 19117947 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.c800158200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Oct4 is a known master regulator of stem cell renewal and differentiation. Expression of Oct4 during differentiation is regulated by promoter methylation by the nucleosome remodeling and histone deacetylation (NuRD) complex. Here, we show that Cdk2ap1, a negative regulator of Cdk2 function and cell cycle, promotes Oct4 promoter methylation during murine embryonic stem cell differentiation to down-regulate Oct4 expression. We further show that this repressor function of Cdk2ap1 is dependent on its physical interaction with the methyl DNA-binding protein, Mbd3. Our data support a potential molecular link between the known differentiation promoters, including bone morphogenetic proteins and transforming growth factor signaling, and embryonic stem cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit M Deshpande
- Dental Research Institute, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, California 90025, USA.
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Doss MX, Chen S, Winkler J, Hippler-Altenburg R, Odenthal M, Wickenhauser C, Balaraman S, Schulz H, Hummel O, Hübner N, Ghosh-Choudhury N, Sotiriadou I, Hescheler J, Sachinidis A. Transcriptomic and phenotypic analysis of murine embryonic stem cell derived BMP2+ lineage cells: an insight into mesodermal patterning. Genome Biol 2008; 8:R184. [PMID: 17784959 PMCID: PMC2375022 DOI: 10.1186/gb-2007-8-9-r184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2006] [Revised: 05/30/2007] [Accepted: 09/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Transcriptome analysis of BMP2+ cells in comparison to the undifferentiated BMP2 ES cells and the control population from 7-day old embryoid bodies led to the identification of 479 specifically upregulated and 193 downregulated transcripts. Background Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)2 is a late mesodermal marker expressed during vertebrate development and plays a crucial role in early embryonic development. The nature of the BMP2-expressing cells during the early stages of embryonic development, their transcriptome and cell phenotypes developed from these cells have not yet been characterized. Results We generated a transgenic BMP2 embryonic stem (ES) cell lineage expressing both puromycin acetyltransferase and enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) driven by the BMP2 promoter. Puromycin resistant and EGFP positive BMP2+ cells with a purity of over 93% were isolated. Complete transcriptome analysis of BMP2+ cells in comparison to the undifferentiated ES cells and the control population from seven-day-old embryoid bodies (EBs; intersection of genes differentially expressed between undifferentiated ES cells and BMP2+ EBs as well as differentially expressed between seven-day-old control EBs and BMP2+ EBs by t-test, p < 0.01, fold change >2) by microarray analysis led to identification of 479 specifically upregulated and 193 downregulated transcripts. Transcription factors, apoptosis promoting factors and other signaling molecules involved in early embryonic development are mainly upregulated in BMP2+ cells. Long-term differentiation of the BMP2+ cells resulted in neural crest stem cells (NCSCs), smooth muscle cells, epithelial-like cells, neuronal-like cells, osteoblasts and monocytes. Interestingly, development of cardiomyocytes from the BMP2+ cells requires secondary EB formation. Conclusion This is the first study to identify the complete transcriptome of BMP2+ cells and cell phenotypes from a mesodermal origin, thus offering an insight into the role of BMP2+ cells during embryonic developmental processes in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Xavier Doss
- Institute of Neurophysiology, University of Cologne, Robert-Koch Str. 39, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Shuhua Chen
- Institute of Neurophysiology, University of Cologne, Robert-Koch Str. 39, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Johannes Winkler
- Institute of Neurophysiology, University of Cologne, Robert-Koch Str. 39, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Rita Hippler-Altenburg
- Institute of Neurophysiology, University of Cologne, Robert-Koch Str. 39, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Margareta Odenthal
- Institute of Pathology, University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Claudia Wickenhauser
- Institute of Pathology, University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Sridevi Balaraman
- Institute of Pathology, University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Herbert Schulz
- Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine - MDC, Robert-Rössle Str. 10, 13092 Berlin, Germany
| | - Oliver Hummel
- Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine - MDC, Robert-Rössle Str. 10, 13092 Berlin, Germany
| | - Norbert Hübner
- Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine - MDC, Robert-Rössle Str. 10, 13092 Berlin, Germany
| | - Nandini Ghosh-Choudhury
- Department of Pathology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Isaia Sotiriadou
- Institute of Neurophysiology, University of Cologne, Robert-Koch Str. 39, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Jürgen Hescheler
- Institute of Neurophysiology, University of Cologne, Robert-Koch Str. 39, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Agapios Sachinidis
- Institute of Neurophysiology, University of Cologne, Robert-Koch Str. 39, 50931 Cologne, Germany
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Hartshorn C, Eckert JJ, Hartung O, Wangh LJ. Single-cell duplex RT-LATE-PCR reveals Oct4 and Xist RNA gradients in 8-cell embryos. BMC Biotechnol 2007; 7:87. [PMID: 18067662 PMCID: PMC2246118 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6750-7-87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2007] [Accepted: 12/07/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The formation of two distinctive cell lineages in preimplantation mouse embryos is characterized by differential gene expression. The cells of the inner cell mass are pluripotent and express high levels of Oct4 mRNA, which is down-regulated in the surrounding trophectoderm. In contrast, the trophectoderm of female embryos contains Xist mRNA, which is absent from cells of the inner mass. Prior to blastocyst formation, all blastomeres of female embryos still express both of these RNAs. We, thus, postulated that simultaneous quantification of Oct4 and Xist transcripts in individual blastomeres at the 8-cell stage could be informative as to their subsequent fate. Testing this hypothesis, however, presented numerous technical challenges. We overcame these difficulties by combining PurAmp, a single-tube method for RNA preparation and quantification, with LATE-PCR, an advanced form of asymmetric PCR. RESULTS We constructed a duplex RT-LATE-PCR assay for real-time measurement of Oct4 and Xist templates and confirmed its specificity and quantitative accuracy with different methods. We then undertook analysis of sets of blastomeres isolated from embryos at the 8-cell stage. At this stage, all cells in the embryo are still pluripotent and morphologically equivalent. Our results demonstrate, however, that both Oct4 and Xist RNA levels vary in individual blastomeres comprising the same embryo, with some cells having particularly elevated levels of either transcript. Analysis of multiple embryos also shows that Xist and Oct4 expression levels are not correlated at the 8-cell stage, although transcription of both genes is up-regulated at this time in development. In addition, comparison of data from males and females allowed us to determine that the efficiency of the Oct4/Xist assay is unaffected by sex-related differences in gene expression. CONCLUSION This paper describes the first example of multiplex RT-LATE-PCR and its utility, when combined with PurAmp sample preparation, for quantitative analysis of transcript levels in single cells. With this technique, copy numbers of different RNAs can be accurately measured independently from their relative abundance in a cell, a goal that cannot be achieved using symmetric PCR. The technique illustrated in this work is relevant to a wide array of applications, such as stem cell and cancer cell analysis and preimplantation genetic diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Hartshorn
- Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02454-9110, USA.
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Tong GQ, Heng BC, Tan LG, Ng SC. Aberrant profile of gene expression in cloned mouse embryos derived from donor cumulus nuclei. Cell Tissue Res 2006; 325:231-43. [PMID: 16596391 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-006-0189-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2005] [Accepted: 02/20/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Somatic cell nuclear transfer has successfully been used to clone several mammalian species including the mouse, albeit with extremely low efficiency. This study investigated gene expression in cloned mouse embryos derived from cumulus cell donor nuclei, in comparison with in vivo fertilized mouse embryos, at progressive developmental stages. Enucleation was carried out by the conventional puncture method rather than by the piezo-actuated technique, whereas nuclear transfer was achieved by direct cumulus nuclear injection. Embryonic development was monitored from chemically induced activation on day 0 until the blastocyst stage on day 4. Poor developmental competence of cloned embryos was observed, which was confirmed by lower cell counts in cloned blastocysts, compared with the in vivo fertilized controls. Subsequently, real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to analyze and compare embryonic gene expression at the 2-cell, 4-cell, and blastocyst stages, between the experimental and control groups. The results showed reduced expression of the candidate genes in cloned 2-cell stage embryos, as manifested by poor developmental competence, compared with expression in the in vivo fertilized controls. Cloned 4-cell embryos and blastocysts, which had overcome the developmental block at the 2-cell stage, also showed up-regulated and down-regulated expression of several genes, strongly suggesting incomplete nuclear reprogramming. We have therefore demonstrated that aberrant embryonic gene expression is associated with low developmental competence of cloned mouse embryos. To improve the efficiency of somatic cell nuclear transfer, strategies to rectify aberrant gene expression in cloned embryos should be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo Qing Tong
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, National University of Singapore, 5 Lower Kent Ridge Road, 119074 Singapore, Singapore.
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Naito AT, Akazawa H, Takano H, Minamino T, Nagai T, Aburatani H, Komuro I. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-Akt pathway plays a critical role in early cardiomyogenesis by regulating canonical Wnt signaling. Circ Res 2005; 97:144-51. [PMID: 15994435 DOI: 10.1161/01.res.0000175241.92285.f8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
We have recently reported that activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) plays a critical role in the early stage of cardiomyocyte differentiation of P19CL6 cells. We here examined molecular mechanisms of how PI3K is involved in cardiomyocyte differentiation. DNA chip analysis revealed that expression levels of Wnt-3a were markedly increased and that the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway was activated temporally during the early stage of cardiomyocyte differentiation of P19CL6 cells. Activation of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway during this period was required and sufficient for cardiomyocyte differentiation of P19CL6 cells. Inhibition of the PI3K/Akt pathway suppressed the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway by activation of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta) and degradation of beta-catenin. Suppression of cardiomyocyte differentiation by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt pathway was rescued by forced expression of a nonphosphorylated, constitutively active form of beta-catenin. These results suggest that the PI3K pathway regulates cardiomyocyte differentiation through suppressing the GSK-3beta activity and maintaining the Wnt/beta-catenin activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsuhiko T Naito
- Department of Cardiovascular Science and Medicine, Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
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Miura T, Luo Y, Khrebtukova I, Brandenberger R, Zhou D, Thies RS, Vasicek T, Young H, Lebkowski J, Carpenter MK, Rao MS. Monitoring early differentiation events in human embryonic stem cells by massively parallel signature sequencing and expressed sequence tag scan. Stem Cells Dev 2005; 13:694-715. [PMID: 15684837 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2004.13.694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To identify genes that may be involved in the process of human embryonic stem cell (hESC) differentiation, we profiled gene expression by expressed sequenced tag (EST) enumeration and massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) using RNA samples from feeder-free cultures of undifferentiated (passages 40-50) and differentiated (day 14) H1, H7, and H9 lines. MPSS and EST scan analysis showed good concordance and identified a large number of genes that changed rapidly as cultures transition from a pluripotent to a differentiated state. These included known and unknown ES cell-specific genes as well as a large number of known genes that were altered as cells differentiate. A subset of genes that were either up- or down-regulated were selected and their differential expression confirmed by a variety of independent methods, including comparison of expression after further differentiation, publicly available databases, and direct assessments by reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR and immunocytochemistry. The analysis identified markers unique to the hESC and embryoid bodies (hEBs) stage as well as signaling pathways that likely regulate differentiation. The data generated can be used to monitor the state of hESC isolated by different laboratories using independent methods and maintained under differing culture conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takumi Miura
- Gerontology Research Center, Stem Cell Biology Unit/Laboratory of Neurosciences, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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