Effect of Aralia cordata Extracts on Cartilage Protection and Apoptosis Inhibition

Aralia continentalis Root Enhances Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep by Activating GABAA Receptors

Aralia continentalis exhibits various biological activities; however, their sleep-promoting effects have not been previously reported. In this study, we evaluated the hypnotic effects and sleep-wake profiles of A. continentalis root (KS-126) using a pentobarbital-induced sleep-acceleration test and polysomnographic recordings. Additionally, we investigated the molecular mechanism of KS-126 through patch-clamp electrophysiology. Our polysomnographic recordings revealed that KS-126 not only accelerated the onset of non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS) but also extends its duration. Considering the temporal dynamics of the sleep-wake stages, during the initial and subsequent periods KS-126 extended NREMS duration and decreased wakefulness, thereby enhancing sleep-promoting effects. Furthermore, the assessment of sleep quality via analysis of electroencephalogram power density indicated that KS-126 did not significantly alter sleep intensity. Finally, we found that KS-126 enhanced GABAA receptor-mediated synaptic responses in primary hippocampal neurons, leading to an increase in the percentage of the GABA current. This effect was not affected by the selective benzodiazepine receptor antagonist flumazenil, but was entirely inhibited by the GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculline. In conclusion, KS-126 extends the duration of NREMS without altering its intensity by prolonging GABAergic synaptic transmission, which modulates GABAA receptor function.

Analysis of Structure and Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharides from Aralia continentalis

We extracted, purified, and characterized three neutral and three acidic polysaccharides from the roots, stems, and leaves of Aralia continentalis Kitigawa. The results of the analysis of monosaccharide composition indicated that the polysaccharides from the roots and stems were more similar to each other than they were to the polysaccharides from the leaves. The in vitro antioxidant results demonstrated that the acidic polysaccharides had stronger antioxidant activity than the neutral fractions. Therefore, we investigated the primary purified acidic polysaccharide fractions (WACP(R)-A-c, WACP(S)-A-c, and WACP(L)-A-d) by NMR and enzymatic analysis. The structural analytical results indicated that WACP(R)-A-c contained homogalacturonan (HG); WACP(S)-A-c contained HG and rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II), and WACP(L)-A-d contained HG, RG-II, and rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) domains. Our findings offer insights into the screening of natural polysaccharide-based antioxidants and provide a theoretical basis for the application of A. continentalis.

Aralia continentalis kitagawa Extract Attenuates the Fatigue Induced by Exhaustive Exercise through Inhibition of Oxidative Stress

The present study aimed to evaluate the anti-fatigue effects of Aralia continentalis kitagawa (AC) extract during exhaustive exercise of rats by forced swimming. Rats were subjected to forced swimming until exhausted after pre-treatment with AC extract for 21 days. Exhaustion time significantly increased in rats treated with AC extract. AC treatment also preserved blood homeostasis during fatigue due to exhaustive exercise. For fatigue-related serum biomarkers, AC extract significantly fail to decrease glucose and triglyceride (TG), but ameliorated increased lactate levels compared with levels in control rats. Metabolic acidosis, a major cause of fatigue, was effectively attenuated by AC extract, according to metabolic acidosis-related blood parameters. AC extract suppressed muscle injury and attenuated gastrocnemius muscle apoptotic responses due to exhaustive exercise. To investigate the mechanisms behind the AC extract anti-fatigue effect, we evaluated its effect on oxidative stress-related fatigue. We showed that pro-oxidants were inhibited, while antioxidants were preserved by AC extract treatment. Therefore, the anti-fatigue effect of AC extract was mediated by suppression of oxidative stress. Overall, the study demonstrated that AC extract effectively attenuates fatigue from exhaustive exercise through oxidative stress inhibition. AC extract, as an antioxidant, could be utilized as a therapeutic or preventive strategy against exhaustive exercise fatigue.

Continentalic Acid Rather Than Kaurenoic Acid Is Responsible for the Anti-Arthritic Activity of Manchurian Spikenard In Vitro and In Vivo

The aim of this study was to identify the active compound responsible for the pharmacological activities of Manchurian spikenard (Aralia continentalis Kitag.). Interleukin (IL)-1β-stimulated human chondrocytes and monoiodoacetate (MIA)-induced osteoarthritic rats were treated with the 50% ethanolic extract of spikenard or its major components, such as continentalic acid (ent-pimara-8(14),15-diene-19-oic acid) and kaurenoic acid (ent-kaura-16-en-19-oic acid). The spikenard extract significantly inhibited IL-1β-stimulated production of IL-6, IL-8, metalloproteinase (MMP)-1, MMP-13, cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and prostaglandin(PG)E2 in a dose-dependent manner but not MMP-3 production. The extract also inhibited the IL-1β-induced translocation of NF-κB/p65 into the nucleus and dose-dependent phosphorylation levels of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), Jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase. Continentalic acid exhibited significant anti-arthritic activity corresponding exactly to that of the extract containing an equivalent amount of continentalic acid. On the other hand, kaurenoic acid exhibited a compatible activity at about a 10-times higher molar concentration than that of continentalic acid. In vitro anti-arthritic activities of the spikenard extract and continentalic acid were also confirmed in MIA-induced osteoarthritic rats. The 50% ethanolic extract of Manchurian spikenard exhibited promising anti-arthritic activities in the in vitro and in vivo osteoarthritis models, and continentalic acid, not kaurenoic acid, was most probably responsible for those activities.

The ethanolic extract of Aralia continentalis ameliorates cognitive deficits via modifications of BDNF expression and anti-inflammatory effects in a rat model of post-traumatic stress disorder

Abstract

Background

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a disease associated with that the experience of traumatic stress. The traumatic experience results in the development of a prolonged stress response that causes impaired memory function and increased inflammation in the hippocampus. Currently, antidepressants are the only approved therapy for PTSD. However, the efficacy of antidepressants in the treatment of PTSD is marginal. The ethanol extract of Aralia continentalis (AC) is traditionally used in oriental medicine, and has been showed to possess pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-atherosclerotic, and anti-diabetic effects. Nevertheless, the effects of AC on cognitive memory and its mechanism of action in PTSD remain unclear. Given the necessity of further treatment options for PTSD, we investigated the effect of AC on the spatial cognitive impairment caused by single prolonged stress (SPS) in a rat model of PTSD.

Methods

Male rats were treated with various intraperitoneal (i.p.) doses of AC for 21 consecutive days after inducing chronic stress with the SPS procedure.

Results

Cognitive impairment caused by SPS were inhibited after treatment with 100 mg/kg AC, as measured by the Morris water maze test and an object recognition test. Additionally, AC treatment significantly alleviated memory-related decreases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA and protein levels in the hippocampus. Our results suggest that AC significantly inhibited the cognitive deficits caused by SPS via increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6, in the rat brain.

Conclusions

AC reversed the behavioral impairments and inflammation triggered by SPS-derived traumatic stress and should be further evaluated as a potential therapeutic drug for PTSD.

Anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects of the ethanolic extract of Aralia continentalis Kitag. in IL-1β-stimulated human fibroblast-like synoviocytes and rodent models of polyarthritis and nociception

BACKGROUND

Blocking the formation and invasive growth of pannus and its secretion of inflammatory cytokines and MMPs is important for treating rheumatoid arthritis.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

Anti-arthritic activity of Aralia continentalis Kitag., an oriental herbal medicine, and the underlying mechanisms involved were investigated.

STUDY DESIGN

Anti-inflammatory and anti-nocicpetive activities of the ethanolic extract (50% v/v) of Aralia continentalis Kitag. harvested from Imsil, Korea (ACI) were investigated in IL-1β-stimulated human fibroblast-like synoviocyte (FLS) cells and rodent models of collagen-induced polyarthritis and carrageenan-induced acute paw pain.

METHODS

In IL-1β-stimulated FLS cells derived from rheumatoid arthritis patients, the anti-inflammatory activity of ACI was examined by analyzing the expression levels of inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-13, PGE2, and COX-2 using ELISA and RT-PCR analysis. The anti-arthritic activity of ACI was investigated by measuring body weight, squeaking score, paw volume, and arthritis index in collagen-induced polyarthritis mice. The anti-nociceptive activity of ACI was examined in the paw-pressure test and Tail-flick latency test in rats.

RESULTS

The ethanolic extract (50% v/v) of ACI reduced the levels of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, MMP-1, and MMP-13 secreted by IL-1β-stimulated FLS cells, whereas MMP-3, COX-2, and PGE2 were not significantly affected. ACI inhibited the migration of NF-κB into the nucleus through the inhibition of ERK- and JNK-dependent MAP kinase pathways in IL-1β-stimulated FLS cells. In collagen-induced polyarthritis mice, oral administration of ACI extract (200 mg/kg) significantly alleviated arthritic behaviors. Histological observations of arthritic mouse knees were consistent with their behaviors. The anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory activities of 200 mg/kg ACI extract were comparable to those of 10 mg/kg prednisolone when administered to mice. However, ACI administration did not significantly affect carrageenan-induced hyperalgesia or thermal nociception in rats.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the ethanolic extract of ACI have significant anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects in a rodent arthritis model and in IL-1β-stimulated FLS cells. Thus, ACI may be a useful candidate for developing pharmaceuticals or dietary supplements for the treatment of inflammatory arthritis.

Yeast hydrolysate protects cartilage via stimulation of type II collagen synthesis and suppression of MMP-13 production

Type II collagen (COL II) is one of the primary components of hyaline cartilage and plays a key role in maintaining chondrocyte function. COL II is the principal target of destruction, and matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) have a major role in arthritis. In the present study, we investigated the chondroctye protection effects of specific fraction of yeast hydrolysate ((10-30 kDa molecular weight peptides). The mRNA expression of COL II was significantly increased in the YH-treated group compared to the control at concentrations above 50 µg/ml, respectively. The 200 µg/ml YH-treated group (3.43 ± 0.23 µg/ml) showed significantly reduced glycosaminoglycan (GAG) degradation relative to that in the interleukin-1β (IL-1β)-treated control group (4.72 ± 0.05 µg/ml). In the YH-treated group, MMP-13 level was significantly decreased in a dose-dependent manner compared to the IL-1β-treated group without YH treatment. However, MMP-1 and MMP-3 level were not different from that of control. Under the same conditions, we also examined mRNA levels of COL II. The mRNA expression of COL II was significantly higher in the YH-treated group than in the IL-1β-treated control group at concentrations above 100 µg/ml. In conclusion, YH stimulated COL II synthesis and significantly inhibited MMP-13 and GAG degradation caused by IL-1β treatment.

Saponin-rich fraction from Clematis chinensis Osbeck roots protects rabbit chondrocytes against nitric oxide-induced apoptosis via preventing mitochondria impairment and caspase-3 activation

Our previous study reported that the saponin-rich fraction from Clematis chinensis Osbeck roots (SFC) could effectively alleviate experimental osteoarthritis induced by monosodium iodoacetate in rats through protecting articular cartilage and inhibiting local inflammation. The present study was performed to investigate the preventive effects of SFC on articular chondrocyte, and explore the underlying mechanisms. Primary rabbit chondrocytes were cultured and exposed to sodium nitroprusside (SNP), a NO donor. After treatment with different concentrations of SFC (30, 100, 300, 1,000 μg/ml) for 24 h, nucleic morphology, apoptotic rate, mitochondrial function and caspase-3 activity of chondrocytes were examined. The results showed that SNP induced remarkable apoptosis of rabbit chondrocytes evidenced by Hoechst 33258 staining and flow cytometry analysis, and SFC prevented the apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner. Further studies indicated that SFC could prevent the depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential (∆ψm) in SNP-treated chondrocytes and suppress the activation of caspase-3. It can be concluded that the protection of SFC on articular chondrocytes is associated with the anti-apoptosis effects via inhibiting the mitochondrion impairment and caspase-3 activation.

Combined prescription (OAH19T) of Aralia cordata Thunb and Cimicifuga heracleifolia Komar and its major compounds inhibit matrix proteinases and vascular endothelial growth factor through the regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

OAH19T, a new herbal extract from a mixture of Aralia cordata Thunb and Cimicifuga heracleifolia, is traditionally used for the treatment of arthritis in far East Asia. To investigate the chondroprotective effects of OAH19T on osteoarthritis was examined and compared with its major compounds pimaradienoic acid (PA) and ferulic acid (FA) of human osteoarthritis (OA) chondrocytes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chondrocytes, alone or in the presence of IL-1β, were cultured with or without OAH19T, PA or FA (10, 20, 40 μg/ml). The release of sulfated glycosaminoglycan (GAG) was measured by colorimetric assay using 1,9-dimethylmethylene blue (DMB) reagent from the cultured media. The level of aggrecanases and VEGF was measured by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The expression of MMP-1 and MMP-3 analyzed by real time RT-PCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases was performed by immunoblotting in OA chondrocytes. The proliferation was examined by the BrdU assay.

RESULTS

OAH19T markedly inhibited the release of proteoglycan and the degradation of aggrecan, in a dose-dependent manner in OA chondrocytes. OAH19T also inhibited the level of aggrecanase-1, aggrecanase-2, MMP-1, MMP-3, and VEGF in OA chondrocytes. PA and FA also inhibited the level of aggrecanase-2, MMP-3 and VEGF, while did not significantly affect the levels of aggrecanase-1, MMP-3 in OA chondrocytes. OAH19T exhibited the down-regulation of p38 MAP kinase unlike PA and FA in OA chondrocytes without cytotoxicity. In addition, p38 inhibitor SB203580 abolished the antiproliferative activity and proteoglycan degradation by OAH19T, while had no effect by PA or FA.

CONCLUSION

OAH19T have shown the chondroprotective effect by inhibiting cell proliferation, expression of cartilage-specific matrix proteinases and release of VEGF, but bigger than PA or FA, through down-regulation of p38 MAP kinase in human OA chondocyte. These results provide pharmacological basis for use in treatment of OA.

The analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of 7-oxosandaracopimaric acid isolated from the roots of Aralia cordata

The root of Aralia cordata is a traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammation, fever, pain, and spasm in the various diseases in Korea. We isolated a dibenzylbutyrolactone diterpene acid, 7-oxosandaracopimaric acid (OSA), from the ether fraction of Aralia cordata MeOH extract, and studied the effect of OSA on phenylquinone (PQ)-induced writhing syndrome and PQ-induced capillary permeability increase, compound 48/80-induced histamine release by peritoneal mast cells, cycloxygenase (COX) activities, and silica-induced RAW 264.7 cell reactive oxygen species production. OSA (30 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited PQ-induced writhes by 25.8% and the PQ-induced capillary permeability increase levels by 33.13% as compared with PQ control. Furthermore, OSA (10 mM) inhibited COX-1 by 22.82 +/- 1.94%, and COX-2 by 15.86 +/- 1.35%, respectively, to the same extent as indomethacin at the same concentration (10 mM). And OSA (3.0 mM) significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited compound 48/80-induced histamine release from rat mast cells, and its activity was similar to that of celebrex (1 mM), but no piracetam (0.1 mM) inhibited them. OSA did not inhibit ROS production in RAW 264.7 cells. These results indicated that OSA has analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects due to its inhibitory effects on capillary permeability, COX activities, and histamine release.

Therapeutic effect of Aralia cordata extracts on cartilage protection in collagenase-induced inflammatory arthritis rabbit model

AIM OF THIS STUDY

Aralia cordata has been used to alleviate symptoms of osteoarthritis (OA) in traditional medicine. However, there is no in vivo study related with the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of Aralia cordata. On the basis of this background, our study was designed to examine the cartilage protective and proliferative effects of Aralia cordata by using a collagenase-induced osteoarthritis (CIA) rabbit model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The right knees of rabbits were injected intra-articularly with collagenase, and rabbits were orally administered with distilled water (vehicle), Aralia cordata (200mg/kg) and celecoxib (100mg/kg) once a day for 28 days after the initiation of the CIA.

RESULTS

In histopathologic studying by using H&E and Safranin O staining, Aralia cordata showed a cartilage protective effect in CIA rabbit femoral condyle. However, celecoxib had no effect on cartilage protection in CIA. The inflammatory mediators involved in cartilage destruction, such as COX-2 and PGE(2), were inhibited in the Aralia cordata-treated group. Aralia cordata also showed an anti-apoptotic effect through suppression of caspase-3 activity and chondrocyte proliferation induction in both in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that Aralia cordata showed cartilage protective effects through the down-regulations of COX-2 expression, PGE(2) production, caspase-3 activity, and chondrocyte proliferation in the CIA rabbit model.