2-Methoxycinnamaldehyde Reduces IL-1.BETA.-Induced Prostaglandin Production in Rat Cerebral Endothelial Cells

Evaluation of cinnamaldehyde derivatives as potential protective agents against oxidative-stress induced myotube atrophy using chemical, biological and computational analysis

Skeletal muscle atrophy, associated with increased morbidity, mortality and poor quality of life, is a metabolic disorder with no FDA approved drug. Oxidative stress is one of the key mediators of atrophy that influences various cell signaling molecules. The goal of this study is to identify potential antioxidant agents that could be used to treat atrophy. In this study in vitro and in situ screening of different cinnamaldehyde (CNA) derivatives for their antioxidant effects was done along with computational analysis to understand the relationship between their chemical structure and biological activity. Data show that 2-hydroxycinnamaldehyde (2HCNA) worked better than other CNA analogues at physiological pH, while 4-Fluoro-2-methoxycinnamaldehyde (4FoCNA) showed the maximum antioxidant activity under acidic conditions. However, these derivatives (2HCNA and 4FoCNA) were found to be toxic to the cultured myotubes (mature myofiber) under both physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Immunofluorescence, bright-field microscopic and biochemical studies conducted using live C2C12 cells showed that pre-incubation with other CNA analogues i.e. 2-methoxycinnamaldehyde (2MeCNA) and 2-benzyloxycinnamaldehyde (2BzCNA) not only maintained the normal morphology of myotubes but also protected them from H2O2-induced atrophy. These compounds (2MeCNA and 2BzCNA) showed higher stability and antioxidant potential, as indicated by computer simulation data analyzed by Density Functional Theory (DFT) based molecular modeling. Overall, the chemical, biological, and computational studies reveal the therapeutic potential of CNA analogues (BzCNA and MeCNA) against oxidative-stress induced muscle atrophy in C2C12 cells.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Formononetin 7-O-phosphate, a Novel Biorenovation Product, on LPS-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Macrophage Cells

Biorenovation is a microbial enzyme-catalyzed structural modification of organic compounds with the potential benefits of reduced toxicity and improved biological properties relative to their precursor compounds. In this study, we synthesized a novel compound verified as formononetin 7-O-phosphate (FMP) from formononetin (FM) using microbial biotransformation. We further compared the anti-inflammatory properties of FMP to FM in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. We observed that cell viabilities and inhibitory effects on LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production were greater in FMP-treated RAW 264.7 cells than in their FM-treated counterparts. In addition, FMP treatment suppressed the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as prostaglandin-E₂ (PGE₂), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in a dose-dependent manner and concomitantly decreased the mRNA expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). We also found that FMP exerted its anti-inflammatory effects through the downregulation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways. In conclusion, we generated a novel anti-inflammatory compound using biorenovation and demonstrated its efficacy in cell-based in vitro assays.

Cinnamomum cassia exhibits antileishmanial activity against Leishmania donovani infection in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

There is a pressing need for drug discovery against visceral leishmaniasis, a life-threatening protozoal infection, as the available chemotherapy is antiquated and not bereft of side effects. Plants as alternate drug resources has rewarded mankind in the past and aimed in this direction, we investigated the antileishmanial potential of Cinnamomum cassia.

METHODOLOGY

Dichloromethane, ethanolic and aqueous fractions of C. cassia bark, prepared by sequential extraction, were appraised for their anti-promastigote activity along with apoptosis-inducing potential. The most potent, C. cassia dichloromethane fraction (CBD) was evaluated for anti-amastigote efficacy in infected macrophages and nitric oxide (NO) production studied. The in vivo antileishmanial efficacy was assessed in L. donovani infected BALB/c mice and hamsters and various correlates of host protective immunity ascertained. Toxicity profile of CBD was investigated in vitro against peritoneal macrophages and in vivo via alterations in liver and kidney functions. The plant secondary metabolites present in CBD were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS).

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

CBD displayed significant anti-promastigote activity with 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 33.6 μg ml-1 that was mediated via apoptosis. This was evidenced by mitochondrial membrane depolarization, increased proportion of cells in sub-G0-G1 phase, ROS production, PS externalization and DNA fragmentation (TUNEL assay). CBD also inhibited intracellular amastigote proliferation (IC50 14.06 μg ml-1) independent of NO production. The in vivo protection achieved was 80.91% (liver) and 82.92% (spleen) in mice and 75.61% (liver) and 78.93% (spleen) in hamsters indicating its profound therapeutic efficacy. CBD exhibited direct antileishmanial activity, as it did not specifically induce a T helper type (Th)-1-polarized mileu in cured hosts. This was evidenced by insignificant modulation of NO production, lymphoproliferation, DTH (delayed type hypersensitivity), serum IgG2a and IgG1 levels and production of Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) along with restoration of pro-inflammatory Th1 cytokines (INF-γ, IL-12p70) to the normal range. CBD was devoid of any toxicity in vitro as well as in vivo. The chemical constituents, cinnamaldehyde and its derivatives present in CBD may have imparted the observed antileishmanial effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights the profound antileishmanial efficacy of C. cassia bark DCM fraction and merits its further exploration as a source of safe and effective antieishmanial compounds.

Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Kelong-Capsule on Testosterone-Induced Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Rats

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a common disease in the current ageing male population. This research aims to study the effects of Kelong-Capsules (KLC) on testosterone-induced BPH. Thirty rats were randomly divided into normal group, model group, and three treatment groups. Three treatment groups were given KLC (3.6 g/kg), KLC (7.2 g/kg), and finasteride (0.9 mg/kg), respectively, for 28 days after establishing the animal model. The BPH rat models were evaluated by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) symptoms and prostate index (PI). Results indicated that three treatment groups all alleviated the pathological changes of prostate and kidney at different levels. Compared with the model group, the PI of the groups treated with KLC (7.2 g/kg) and finasteride decreased significantly. The expressions of NF-E2 related factor 2 (Nrf-2) and quinine oxidoreductase (NQO1) in the group treated with KLC (3.6 g/kg) increased markedly (p < 0.01). The cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein expression of the group treated with KLC (7.2 g/kg) was increased (p < 0.01). In conclusion, KLC could obviously inhibit the growth of prostate, and KLC (3.6 g/kg) could promote the expressions of Nrf2 and NQO1.

Simulated airplane headache: a proxy towards identification of underlying mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Airplane Headache (AH) occurs during flights and often appears as an intense, short lasting headache during take-off or landing. Reports are limited on pathological mechanisms underlying the occurrence of this headache. Proper diagnosis and treatments would benefit from identification of potential pathways involved in AH pathogenesis. This study aimed at providing a simulated airplane headache condition as a proxy towards identification of its underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Fourteen participants including 7 volunteers suffering from AH and 7 healthy matched controls were recruited after meeting the diagnostic and safety criteria based on an approved study protocol. Simulation of AH was achieved by entering a pressure chamber with similar characteristics of an airplane flight. Selected potential biomarkers including salivary prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), cortisol, facial thermo-images, blood pressure, pulse, and saturation pulse oxygen (SPO) were defined and values were collected before, during and after flight simulation in the pressure chamber. Salivary samples were analyzed with ELISA techniques, while data analysis and statistical tests were handled with SPSS version 22.0.

RESULTS

All participants in the AH-group experienced a headache attack similar to AH experience during flight. The non-AH-group did not experience any headaches. Our data showed that the values for PGE₂, cortisol and SPO were significantly different in the AH-group in comparison with the non-AH-group during the flight simulation in the pressure chamber.

CONCLUSION

The pressure chamber proved useful not only to provoke AH-like attack but also to study potential biomarkers for AH in this study. PGE₂, and cortisol levels together with SPO presented dysregulation during the simulated AH-attack in affected individuals compared with healthy controls. Based on these findings we propose to use pressure chamber as a model to induce AH, and thus assess new potential biomarkers for AH in future studies.

Influence of herbal combinations on the extraction efficiencies of chemical compounds from Cinnamomum cassia, Paeonia lactiflora, and Glycyrrhiza uralensis, the herbal components of Gyeji-tang, evaluated by HPLC method

During decoction process, the ingredients of herbal formula interact with each other, such that therapeutic properties and chemical extraction characteristics are altered. The crude drugs, Cinnamomum cassia (CC), Paeonia lactiflora (PL), and Glycyrrhiza uralensis (GU), are the main herbal constituents of Gyeji-tang, a traditional herbal formula. To evaluate the chemical interaction between CC, PL, and GU during the course of decoction, quantification of 16 marker compounds in the herbal decoction, performed using a Box-Behnken experimental design, was carried out by HPLC-diode array detection using validated method. Correlations between the amounts of marker compounds from CC, PL, and GU were assessed by multiple regression analysis. The results obtained showed that amounts of single herb marker compounds significantly changed (usually decreased) by decoction in the presence of other herbs and that these changes depended on the chemical natures of the markers and the herbal medicines present. Results also demonstrated that the extraction efficiencies of marker compounds increased when the proportion of the herb containing them was increased and decreased in proportion to amounts of herbs added. In conclusion, chemical interactions between compositional herbal medicines may occur when herbs are co-decocted. This study provides insight of understanding the herbal interactions in herbal formulae.

An altered peripheral IL6 response in major depressive disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most prevalent major psychiatric disorders with a lifetime prevalence of 17%. Recent evidence suggests MDD is not only a brain dysfunction, but a systemic disease affecting the whole body. Central and peripheral inflammatory changes seem to be a centerpiece of MDD pathology: a subset of patients show elevated blood cytokine and chemokine levels that partially normalize with symptom improvement over the course of anti-depressant treatment. As this inflammatory process in MDD is poorly understood, we hypothesized that the peripheral tissues of MDD patients will respond differently to inflammatory stimuli, resulting in an aberrant transcriptional response to elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines. To test this, we used MDD patient- and control-derived dermal fibroblast cultures to investigate their response to an acute treatment with IL6, IL1β, TNFα, or vehicle. Following RNA isolation and subsequent cDNA synthesis, quantitative PCR was used to determine the relative expression level of several families of inflammation-responsive genes. Our results showed comparable expression of the tested genes between MDD patients and controls at baseline. In contrast, MDD patient fibroblasts had a diminished transcriptional response to IL6 in all the gene sets tested (oxidative stress response, mitochondrial function, and lipid metabolism). We also found a significant increase in baseline and IL6 stimulated transcript levels of the IL6 receptor gene. This IL6 receptor transcript increase in MDD fibroblasts was accompanied by an IL6 stimulated increase in induction of SOCS3, which dampens IL6 receptor signaling. Altogether our results demonstrate that there is an altered transcriptional response to IL6 in MDD, which may represent one of the molecular mechanisms contributing to disease pathophysiology. Ultimately we hope that these studies will lead to validation of novel MDD drug targets focused on normalizing the altered IL6 response in patients.

Baicalein reduces lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation via suppressing JAK/STATs activation and ROS production

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the precise molecular mechanisms by which baicalein exerts beneficial biochemical activities in RAW264.7 macrophages treated with LPS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RAW264.7 cells were cultured in the absence or presence of baicalein together with or without LPS. iNOS and COX-2 expression were measured by western blot and RT-PCR analyses. TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were determined by using double-antibody sandwich ELISA. Phosphorylations of JAK1 and JAK2, and of STAT1 and STAT3 were detected by western blotting. Nuclear translocation of STAT1 and STAT3 was visualized by confocal microscopy. ROS production was detected by ROS assay.

RESULTS

Baicalein significantly reduced the phosphorylation of STAT1 and STAT3 and the phosphorylation of JAK1 and JAK2, but without affecting MAPKs phosphorylation in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Baicalein suppressed the nuclear translocation of STAT1 and STAT3 and inhibited production of iNOS upon LPS-stimulation, resulting in the inhibition of releases of NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, we found that baicalein reduced the LPS-induced accumulation of ROS, confirming that baicalein serves as an antioxidant.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggested that suppressing JAK/STATs activation and interfering with ROS production might contribute to the anti-inflammatory action of baicalein in macrophages.

Water extract of Cinnamomum cassia Blume inhibited human respiratory syncytial virus by preventing viral attachment, internalization, and syncytium formation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cinnamomum cassia Blume is a popular traditional Chinese herbal medicine that has been used to manage respiratory tract disease, including common cold and chronic bronchitis for thousand years. Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) is one of the leading causes of severe lower respiratory tract illness worldwide. No effective therapeutic modality against HRSV infection has been proved. It is unknown whether Cinnamomum cassia is effective against HRSV.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study tested the hypothesis that Cinnamomum cassia can effectively decrease HRSV-induced plaque formation and syncytium formation in respiratory mucosal cell lines.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Antiviral activity of the hot water extract of Cinnamomum cassia against HRSV was tested by plaque reduction assay in both human upper (HEp-2) and low (A549) respiratory tract cell lines. Its ability to inhibit the synthesis of viral fusion (F) protein was examined by Western blot assay.

RESULTS

Cinnamomum cassia dose-dependently inhibited HRSV-induced plaque formation in both HEp-2 and A549 cell lines (p<0.0001). Cinnamomum cassia was more effective when given before viral infection (p<0.0001) mainly by inhibition of viral attachment (p<0.0001) and internalization (p<0.0001). Cinnamomum cassia could inhibit F protein production and syncytium formation to interfere with HRSV spreading.

CONCLUSIONS

Cinnamomum cassia prevented airway epithelia from HRSV infection through inhibiting viral attachment, internalization and syncytium formation. Cinnamomum cassia could be a candidate to develop therapeutic modalities to manage HRSV infection in the future.

2-methoxycinnamaldehyde from Cinnamomum cassia reduces rat myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury in vivo due to HO-1 induction

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cinnamomum cassia Blume has been used as a traditional Chinese herbal medicine for alleviation of fever, inflammation, chronic bronchitis, and to improve blood circulation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We addressed whether 2-methoxycinnamaldehyde (2-MCA), one of active ingredients of Cinnamomum cassia, reduces vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) expression in tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-activated endothelial cells and protects ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-injury due to heme oxygenase (HO)-1 induction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Adult male rats were subjected to 30 min of ischemia by occlusion of the left anterior descending coronary artery followed by 24h of reperfusion. Rats were randomized to receive vehicle or 2-MCA (i.v.) 10 min before reperfusion.

RESULTS

Administration of 2-MCA significantly improved I/R-induced myocardial dysfunction by increasing the values of the first derivative (±dp/dt) of left ventricular pressure and decreased infarct size. In addition, 2-MCA reduced the expression of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), an activator of the inflammatory cascade when released into the extracellular space, and VCAM-1 in I/R myocardium along with increase of HO-1 induction. The reduced injury was accompanied by significantly reduction of neutrophils infiltration and increased SOD activity in ischemic tissues and reduced serum level of cardiac troponin I (cTnI). Furthermore, 2-MCA significantly increased HO-1 induction by translocation of Nrf-2 from cytosol to nucleus in endothelial cells. Inhibition of VCAM-1 expression by 2-MCA was reversed both by SnPPIX, a HO-1 inhibitor and siHO-1 RNA trasfection in TNF-α-activated cells. In addition, 2-MCA significantly inhibited NF-κB luciferase activity in TNF-α-activated endothelial cells. As expected, 2-MCA significantly inhibited monocyte (U937) adhesion to endothelial cells.

CONCLUSION

We concluded that 2-MCA protects of myocardial I/R-injury due to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action possibly by HO-1 induction which can be explained why Cinnamomum cassia has been used in inflammatory disorders.

Anti-inflammatory effects of fermented and non-fermented Sophora flavescens: a comparative study

Background

The roots of Sophora flavescens (Leguminosae) have been used in East Asian countries as an herbal medicine and a food ingredient for thousands of years. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of S. flavescens fermentation on endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU) in rats.

Methods

EIU was induced in rats via a footpad injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Immediately after the LPS inoculation, fermented and non-fermented extracts of S. flavescens (FSE and NFSE, respectively) were administered orally, and the aqueous humor was collected from both eyes 24 hours later. The anti-inflammatory effects of FSE and NFSE were examined in terms of regulation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation and the expression of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), intercellular cell adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). The regulation of maleic dialdehyde (MDA) levels and polymorphonuclear cell (PMN) infiltration by FSE and NFSE were also examined.

Results

Treatment with FSE significantly inhibited LPS-induced increases in IL-1β and TNF-α production and the expression of iNOS, ICAM-1 and COX-2. Moreover, FSE suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB activation, and reduced both MDA levels and infiltration by PMN.

Conclusion

These results indicate that solid state fermentation may enhance the anti-inflammatory effects of S. flavescens.

4-Methoxycinnamaldehyde inhibited human respiratory syncytial virus in a human larynx carcinoma cell line

4-Methoxycinnamaldehyde, an active constituent of Agastache rugosa, was examined for its cytoprotective activity against RSV by XTT method in human larynx carcinoma cell line. 4-Methoxycinnamaldehyde could effectively inhibit cytopathic effect of RSV (p<0.0001) with an estimated IC(50) of 0.055microg/ml and a selectivity index (SI) of 898.2. 4-Methoxycinnamaldehyde (0.03microg/ml) could inhibit viral entrance by interfering viral attachment (IC(50) of 0.06microg/ml; p<0.0001) and internalization (IC(50) of 0.01microg/ml; p<0.0001). 4-Methoxycinnamaldehyde significantly increased the basal production of IFN (p=0.0015), but not the virus-induced IFN production. Therefore, its cytoprotective activity against RSV was not mediated by interferon. In conclusion, 4-methoxycinnamaldehyde might be helpful to manage the disease induced by RSV infection.

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) Induces Headache in Healthy Subjects

The role of prostanoids in nociception is well established. The headache-eliciting effects of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and its possible mechanisms have previously not been systematically studied in man. We hypothesized that infusion of PGE2 might induce headache and vasodilation of cranial vessels. PGE2 (0.40 μg kg−1 min−1) or saline was infused for 25 min into 11 healthy subjects in a cross-over, double-blind study. Headache intensity was scored on a verbal rating scale from 0 to 10. In addition, we recorded mean flow in the middle cerebral artery (VMCA) by transcranial Doppler and diameter of the superficial temporal artery (STA) by high-resolution ultrasonography. All 11 subjects reported headache on the PGE2 day and no subjects reported headache on the placebo day ( P = 0.001). During the immediate phase (0–30 min) ( P = 0.005) and the postinfusion phase (30–90 min) ( P = 0.005), the area under the curve for headache score was significantly larger on the PGE2 day compared with the placebo day. PGE2 caused dilatation of the STA (23.5%; 95% CI 14.0, 37.8) and the MCA (8.3%; 95% CI 4.0, 12.6). We suggest that PGE2 induces headache by activation and sensitization of cranial perivascular sensory afferents.

Chronic treatment with celecoxib reverses chronic unpredictable stress-induced depressive-like behavior via reducing cyclooxygenase-2 expression in rat brain

Recent clinical trails reported that adjunctive cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 inhibition with celecoxib is beneficial in treating depression. However, another clinical study showed celecoxib did not have inhibitory effect of COX-2 in human brain when given at a therapeutic dose. Therefore, whether celecoxib is exerting its influence through COX inhibition or by some other mechanism remains unclear. The present study further investigated the effect of celecoxib on COX-2 expression, prostaglandin E(2) (PGE2, a major COX-2-mediated inflammatory mediator) concentration and the depressive-like behaviors in rats. Celecoxib was administrated by oral gavage to naive rats (16 mg/kg) or stressed rats (2, 8, 16 mg/kg, respectively) for 21 days, or to stressed rats for a single dose (16 mg/kg). The results showed that 21 days chronic unpredictable stress induced depressive-like behaviors and increased the COX-2 expression and PGE2 concentration in rat brain. Chronic treatments with celecoxib alleviated the depressive-like behavior and reversed the levels of COX-2 expression and PGE2 concentration in stressed rat in a dose-dependent manner. Celecoxib also improved the emotional state and decreased COX-2 expression and PGE2 concentration in naive rats. In addition, a single dose of celecoxib treatment reversed COX-2 expression and PGE2 concentration, but didn't alter the depressive-like behavior in stressed rat. These results suggest that COX-2 enzyme might play a key role in pathophysiology of depression. Furthermore, these data indicate that chronic celecoxib treatment reverse chronic unpredictable stress-induced depressive-like behavior might via reducing COX-2 enzyme in brain, and the selective COX-2 inhibitors could be developed as potential remedies for the management of depression.

Dexamethasone inhibits leukocyte accumulation and vascular permeability in retina of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats via reducing vascular endothelial growth factor and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression

Intravitreal injection of corticosteroid has been used to treat diabetic macular edema, however, the exact mechanism remains unknown. In the present experiment, four weeks after streptozotocin administration, intravitreal injection of dexamethasone (50 microg/10 microl) was performed. After 2 d injection, we investigated the effect of dexamethasone on leukocyte accumulation, vascular permeability and the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Accumulated leukocytes were counted in vivo by acridine orange leukocyte fluorography, the retinal vascular permeability was measured by the Evans blue assay. The mRNA and protein level of VEGF and ICAM-1 were analyzed with real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) respectively. Dexamethasone downregulated VEGF and ICAM-1 expression in diabetic rats which correlated with its effect on leukocytes accumulation and retinal vascular permeability. The present data revealed that dexamethasone may inhibit retinal accumulation and leukostasis accumulation and vascular permeability through its blockage on VEGF and ICAM-1 expression.