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Zimmermann C, Eaton A, Lanter B, Roper J, Hurley B, Delaney B. Extended exposure duration of cultured intestinal epithelial cell monolayers in characterizing hazardous and non-hazardous proteins. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 115:451-459. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.03.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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2
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Falach R, Israeli O, Gal Y, Sapoznikov A, Shifman O, Ehrlich S, Aftalion M, Beth-Din A, Sabo T, Kronman C. Identifying exposures to ribosome-inactivating proteins in blood samples: amplification of ricin-induced ribosomal damage products enables sensitive detection of active toxin and circulating depurinated 28S rRNA. Forensic Toxicol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-018-0414-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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3
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Delaney B. In vitro studies with human intestinal epithelial cell line monolayers for protein hazard characterization. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 110:425-433. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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4
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Delaney B. Safety assessment of foods from genetically modified crops in countries with developing economies. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 86:132-43. [PMID: 26456807 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Revised: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Population growth particularly in countries with developing economies will result in a need to increase food production by 70% by the year 2050. Biotechnology has been utilized to produce genetically modified (GM) crops for insect and weed control with benefits including increased crop yield and will also be used in emerging countries. A multicomponent safety assessment paradigm has been applied to individual GM crops to determine whether they as safe as foods from non-GM crops. This paper reviews methods to assess the safety of foods from GM crops for safe consumption from the first generation of GM crops. The methods can readily be applied to new products developed within country and this paper will emphasize the concept of data portability; that safety data produced in one geographic location is suitable for safety assessment regardless of where it is utilized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan Delaney
- Global Industry Affairs and Regulatory, DuPont Pioneer, 7100 NW 62nd Avenue, P.O. Box 1004, Johnston, IA 50131, United States.
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Bushey DF, Bannon GA, Delaney BF, Graser G, Hefford M, Jiang X, Lee TC, Madduri KM, Pariza M, Privalle LS, Ranjan R, Saab-Rincon G, Schafer BW, Thelen JJ, Zhang JX, Harper MS. Characteristics and safety assessment of intractable proteins in genetically modified crops. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2014; 69:154-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Revised: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/15/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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6
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Ricin crosses polarized human intestinal cells and intestines of ricin-gavaged mice without evident damage and then disseminates to mouse kidneys. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69706. [PMID: 23874986 PMCID: PMC3714305 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2012] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ricin is a potent toxin found in the beans of Ricinus communis and is often lethal for animals and humans when aerosolized or injected and causes significant morbidity and occasional death when ingested. Ricin has been proposed as a bioweapon because of its lethal properties, environmental stability, and accessibility. In oral intoxication, the process by which the toxin transits across intestinal mucosa is not completely understood. To address this question, we assessed the impact of ricin on the gastrointestinal tract and organs of mice after dissemination of toxin from the gut. We first showed that ricin adhered in a specific pattern to human small bowel intestinal sections, the site within the mouse gut in which a variable degree of damage has been reported by others. We then monitored the movement of ricin across polarized human HCT-8 intestinal monolayers grown in transwell inserts and in HCT-8 cell organoids. We observed that, in both systems, ricin trafficked through the cells without apparent damage until 24 hours post intoxication. We delivered a lethal dose of purified fluorescently-labeled ricin to mice by oral gavage and followed transit of the toxin from the gastrointestinal tracts to the internal organs by in vivo imaging of whole animals over time and ex vivo imaging of organs at various time points. In addition, we harvested organs from unlabeled ricin-gavaged mice and assessed them for the presence of ricin and for histological damage. Finally, we compared serum chemistry values from buffer-treated versus ricin-intoxicated animals. We conclude that ricin transverses human intestinal cells and mouse intestinal cells in situ prior to any indication of enterocyte damage and that ricin rapidly reaches the kidneys of intoxicated mice. We also propose that mice intoxicated orally with ricin likely die from distributive shock.
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Intestinal Tract Dilation Caused by Ingestion of Castor Beans. HONG KONG J EMERG ME 2013. [DOI: 10.1177/102490791302000209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Castor bean is one of the most toxic natural poisons, especially the seeds and pods. We report a patient who ate nearly 30 castor beans heated in a microwave oven. He presented with infectious gastroenteritis like symptoms. Plain abdominal radiograph and abdomen CT studies showed dilated intestinal tract. It was a rare report that a patient after eating so many castor beans could have his clinical manifestation as acute gastroenteritis without any hepatic and renal dysfunction.
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Brandon DL, Korn AM, Yang LL. Immunosorbent analysis of ricin contamination in milk using colorimetric, chemiluminescent and electrochemiluminescent detection. FOOD AGR IMMUNOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/09540105.2012.753515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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9
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Understanding ricin from a defensive viewpoint. Toxins (Basel) 2011; 3:1373-92. [PMID: 22174975 PMCID: PMC3237001 DOI: 10.3390/toxins3111373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2011] [Revised: 10/13/2011] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The toxin ricin has long been understood to have potential for criminal activity and there has been concern that it might be used as a mass-scale weapon on a military basis for at least two decades. Currently, the focus has extended to encompass terrorist activities using ricin to disrupt every day activities on a smaller scale. Whichever scenario is considered, there are features in common which need to be understood; these include the knowledge of the toxicity from ricin poisoning by the likely routes, methods for the detection of ricin in relevant materials and approaches to making an early diagnosis of ricin poisoning, in order to take therapeutic steps to mitigate the toxicity. This article will review the current situation regarding each of these stages in our collective understanding of ricin and how to defend against its use by an aggressor.
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Abstract
The toxin ricin has long been understood to have potential for criminal activity and there has been concern that it might be used as a mass-scale weapon on a military basis for at least two decades. Currently, the focus has extended to encompass terrorist activities using ricin to disrupt every day activities on a smaller scale. Whichever scenario is considered, there are features in common which need to be understood; these include the knowledge of the toxicity from ricin poisoning by the likely routes, methods for the detection of ricin in relevant materials and approaches to making an early diagnosis of ricin poisoning, in order to take therapeutic steps to mitigate the toxicity. This article will review the current situation regarding each of these stages in our collective understanding of ricin and how to defend against its use by an aggressor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth D Griffiths
- Biology Department, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, Wiltshire SP4 0JQ, UK.
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Worbs S, Köhler K, Pauly D, Avondet MA, Schaer M, Dorner MB, Dorner BG. Ricinus communis intoxications in human and veterinary medicine-a summary of real cases. Toxins (Basel) 2011; 3:1332-72. [PMID: 22069699 PMCID: PMC3210461 DOI: 10.3390/toxins3101332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2011] [Revised: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 09/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Accidental and intended Ricinus communis intoxications in humans and animals have been known for centuries but the causative agent remained elusive until 1888 when Stillmark attributed the toxicity to the lectin ricin. Ricinus communis is grown worldwide on an industrial scale for the production of castor oil. As by-product in castor oil production ricin is mass produced above 1 million tons per year. On the basis of its availability, toxicity, ease of preparation and the current lack of medical countermeasures, ricin has gained attention as potential biological warfare agent. The seeds also contain the less toxic, but highly homologous Ricinus communis agglutinin and the alkaloid ricinine, and especially the latter can be used to track intoxications. After oil extraction and detoxification, the defatted press cake is used as organic fertilizer and as low-value feed. In this context there have been sporadic reports from different countries describing animal intoxications after uptake of obviously insufficiently detoxified fertilizer. Observations in Germany over several years, however, have led us to speculate that the detoxification process is not always performed thoroughly and controlled, calling for international regulations which clearly state a ricin threshold in fertilizer. In this review we summarize knowledge on intended and unintended poisoning with ricin or castor seeds both in humans and animals, with a particular emphasis on intoxications due to improperly detoxified castor bean meal and forensic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Worbs
- Centre for Biological Security, Microbial Toxins (ZBS3), Robert Koch-Institut, Nordufer 20, Berlin 13353, Germany; (S.W.); (D.P.); (M.B.D.)
| | - Kernt Köhler
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Frankfurter Street 96, Giessen 35392, Germany;
| | - Diana Pauly
- Centre for Biological Security, Microbial Toxins (ZBS3), Robert Koch-Institut, Nordufer 20, Berlin 13353, Germany; (S.W.); (D.P.); (M.B.D.)
| | - Marc-André Avondet
- Biology and Chemistry Section, Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports DDPS SPIEZ LABORATORY, Austrasse 1, Spiez CH-3700, Switzerland; (M.-A.A.); (M.S.)
| | - Martin Schaer
- Biology and Chemistry Section, Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports DDPS SPIEZ LABORATORY, Austrasse 1, Spiez CH-3700, Switzerland; (M.-A.A.); (M.S.)
| | - Martin B. Dorner
- Centre for Biological Security, Microbial Toxins (ZBS3), Robert Koch-Institut, Nordufer 20, Berlin 13353, Germany; (S.W.); (D.P.); (M.B.D.)
| | - Brigitte G. Dorner
- Centre for Biological Security, Microbial Toxins (ZBS3), Robert Koch-Institut, Nordufer 20, Berlin 13353, Germany; (S.W.); (D.P.); (M.B.D.)
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Brandon DL. Detection of ricin contamination in ground beef by electrochemiluminescence immunosorbent assay. Toxins (Basel) 2011; 3:398-408. [PMID: 22069715 PMCID: PMC3202826 DOI: 10.3390/toxins3040398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2011] [Revised: 03/31/2011] [Accepted: 03/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ricin is a highly toxic protein present in the seeds of Ricinus communis (castor), grown principally as a source of high quality industrial lubricant and as an ornamental. Because ricin has been used for intentional poisoning in the past and could be used to contaminate food, there is a need for analytical methodology to detect ricin in food matrices. A monoclonal antibody-based method was developed for detecting and quantifying ricin in ground beef, a complex, fatty matrix. The limit of detection was 0.5 ng/g for the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) method and 1.5 ng/g for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The detection of nanogram per gram quantities of ricin spiked into retail samples of ground beef provides approximately 10,000-fold greater sensitivity than required to detect a toxic dose of ricin (>1 mg) in a 100 g sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Brandon
- Foodborne Contaminants Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, USDA Agricultural Research Service, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, USA.
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Roy CJ, Song K, Sivasubramani SK, Gardner DJ, Pincus SH. Animal models of ricin toxicosis. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2011; 357:243-57. [PMID: 21956160 DOI: 10.1007/82_2011_173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Animal models of ricin toxicosis are necessary for testing the efficacy of therapeutic measures, as well studying the mechanisms by which ricin exerts its toxicity in intact animals. Because ricin can serve as a particularly well-characterized model of tissue damage, and the host response to that damage, studies of the mechanisms of ricin toxicity may have more general applicability. For example, our studies of the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of ricin-induced hypoglycemia may help elucidate the relationship of type II diabetes, insulin resistance, and inflammation. Studies in non-human primates are most relevant for testing and developing agents having clinical utility. But these animals are expensive and limited in quantity, and so rodents are used for most mechanistic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad J Roy
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA.
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Vaccine-induced intestinal immunity to ricin toxin in the absence of secretory IgA. Vaccine 2010; 29:681-9. [PMID: 21115050 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2010] [Revised: 10/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/10/2010] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The RNA N-glycosidase ribosome inactivating proteins (RIPs) constitute a ubiquitous family of plant- and bacterium-derived toxins that includes the category B select agents ricin, abrin and shiga toxin. While these toxins are potent inducers of intestinal epithelial cell death and inflammation, very little is known about the mechanisms underlying mucosal immunity to these toxins. In the present study, we report that secretory IgA (SIgA) antibodies are not required for intestinal immunity to ricin, as evidenced by the fact that mice devoid of SIgA, due to a mutation in the polymeric immunoglobulin receptor, were impervious to the effects of intragastric toxin challenge following ricin toxoid immunization. Furthermore, parenteral administration of ricin-specific monoclonal IgGs, directed against either ricin's enzymatic subunit (RTA) or ricin's binding subunit (RTB), to wild type mice was as effective as monoclonal IgAs with comparable specificities in imparting intestinal immunity to ricin. These data are consistent with reports from others demonstrating that immunization of mice by routes known not to induce mucosal antibody responses (e.g., intramuscular and intradermal) is sufficient to elicit protection against both systemic and mucosal ricin challenges.
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15
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Brandon DL, Hernlem BJ. Development of monoclonal antibodies specific forRicinusagglutinins. FOOD AGR IMMUNOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/09540100802626487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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16
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Abstract
The oral and intraperitoneal (i.p.) toxicities to female BALB/c mice of ricin and abrin in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), spring water, apple juice, and half-and-half (only oral) were examined after brief (2 h) and prolonged (11 to 13 days) storage. The ricin and abrin samples prepared in PBS had oral toxicities consistent with those previous studies, indicating oral and i.p. 50% lethal doses of > 1 mg/kg of body weight and between 2 and 20 microg/kg of body weight, respectively. The toxicities of ricin and abrin in PBS were greater than those in apple juice and water. The oral toxicity of ricin and abrin in half-and-half appeared comparable to or less than that observed for the toxins in water. Spiked samples stored for a maximum of 11 days (13 for the abrin samples) at 4 degrees C induced similar numbers of fatalities as did samples stored for only 2 h. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays of the samples administered by i.p. injection indicated a decrease in detectable toxin at 0.5 microg/ml.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A E Garber
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Regulatory Science, College Park, Maryland 20740, USA.
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Smallshaw JE, Richardson JA, Vitetta ES. RiVax, a recombinant ricin subunit vaccine, protects mice against ricin delivered by gavage or aerosol. Vaccine 2007; 25:7459-69. [PMID: 17875350 PMCID: PMC2049008 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2007] [Revised: 07/16/2007] [Accepted: 08/02/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Ricin is a plant toxin that is a CDC level B biothreat. Our recombinant ricin A chain vaccine (RiVax), which contains mutations in both known toxic sites, has no residual toxicity at doses at least 800 times the immunogenic dose. RiVax without adjuvant given intramuscularly (i.m.) protected mice against intraperitoneally administered ricin. Furthermore the vaccine without alum was safe and immunogenic in human volunteers. Here we describe the development of gavage and aerosol ricin challenge models in mice and demonstrate that i.m. vaccination protects mice against ricin delivered by either route. Also RiVax protects against aerosol-induced lung damage as determined by histology and lung function tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan E. Smallshaw
- The Cancer Immunobiology Center and the Department of Microbiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 6000 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, Texas 75390-8576, USA
| | - James A. Richardson
- Departments of Pathology and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 6000 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, Texas 75390-8576, USA
| | - Ellen S. Vitetta
- The Cancer Immunobiology Center and the Department of Microbiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 6000 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, Texas 75390-8576, USA
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Cook DL, David J, Griffiths GD. Retrospective identification of ricin in animal tissues following administration by pulmonary and oral routes. Toxicology 2006; 223:61-70. [PMID: 16650517 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2006] [Revised: 03/02/2006] [Accepted: 03/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A previously characterised amplified ELISA for ricin (sensitivity limit approximately 200 pgmL(-1)) has been employed to quantify ricin following a novel recovery method from selected tissues. Tissue samples from rats dosed by pulmonary instillation or orally with ricin were homogenised and treated with an elution buffer to extract ricin. This is the first time that ex vivo recovery of ricin post exposure following pulmonary or oral challenge has been achieved using clinically acceptable sampling methods, with promise in terms of diagnosis for the timely implementation of therapy. The toxin was detected and quantified using the ELISA in conjunction with pure ricin standards. Extracts from tissues sampled, including lung, blood, liver and spleen tested positive for ricin with maximum yield in lung associated fractions for pulmonary dosing and liver tissue for oral administration. This indicates the potential of lavage and blood sampling for timely diagnosis of ricin poisoning by pulmonary and oral routes, respectively. Time course analysis at 24 and 48 h also indicated the progression of ricin from surfaces of the lung into the lung tissue. Inter-subject variation was observed in the case of oral dosing, with data for ricin-treated and vehicle control tissues not statistically different in all samples. In addition the oral toxicity of the crude ricin administered was found to be higher than expected in the rat, based upon published information and an unpublished in house murine study.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Leslie Cook
- Immunotoxicology Group, Biology, Biomedical Sciences, Dstl, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 0JQ, UK
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Abstract
Ricin is a naturally occurring toxin derived from the beans of the castor oil plant Ricinus communis. It is considered a potential chemical weapon. Ricin binds to cell surface carbohydrates, is internalised then causes cell death by inhibiting protein synthesis. Oral absorption is poor and absorption through intact skin most unlikely; the most hazardous routes of exposure being inhalation and injection. Features of toxicity mainly reflect damage to cells of the reticuloendothelial system, with fluid and protein loss, bleeding, oedema and impaired cellular defence against endogenous toxins. It has been estimated that in man, the lethal dose by inhalation (breathing in solid or liquid particles) and injection (into muscle or vein) is approximately 5-10 micrograms/kg, that is 350-700 micrograms for a 70 kg adult. Death has ensued within hours of deliberate subcutaneous injection. Management is supportive. Prophylactic immunisation against ricin toxicity is a developing research initiative, although presently not a realistic option in a civilian context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally M Bradberry
- National Poisons Information Service (Birmingham Centre), West Midlands Poisons Unit, City Hospital, Birmingham, UK.
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