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Atkin J, Devaney C, Yoshimatsu Y, Smithard D. Modified medication use in dysphagia: the effect of thickener on drug bioavailability-a systematic review. Eur Geriatr Med 2024; 15:19-31. [PMID: 38280090 PMCID: PMC10876765 DOI: 10.1007/s41999-023-00896-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/29/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Dysphagia is associated with long-term conditions including strokes, dementia, Parkinson's disease and frailty. Dysphagia affects 30-40% of the population aged over 65 years-old. Adults with dysphagia often experience long-term conditions requiring multiple medications (often > 5) to manage these. The thickening of liquids is a common compensatory strategy in dysphagia management. Studies suggest that immersion in thickened liquids affects medicines' solubility in vitro. Clinicians and pharmacists are unaware of the pharmacokinetic/therapeutic effects of thickened liquids on oral medicines. We conducted a systematic review of existing literature on thickeners' effects on drug bioavailability. METHODOLOGY We performed a literature search of MEDLINE & EMBASE. Search terms included: dysphagia/thickened diet (EMBASE only)/ bioavailability or absorption of medicines or pharmacokinetics; excluded: NG feeds/animal studies. STUDIES INCLUDED all genders, countries, > 18 years, community and hospital settings. PRISMA guidance was followed. RESULTS Five hundred seventy results were found, and 23 articles identified following the reference list review. Following an abstract and full-text review, 18 were included. Most articles evaluated thickeners on dissolution profiles in-vitro, with a few investigating in-vivo. Most studies were single-centre prospective studies identifying that thickeners generally affect dissolution rates of medications. Few studies assessed bioavailability or used clinical outcomes. CONCLUSION Dysphagia and polypharmacy are common in older adults, but little is known about the effects of altering liquid viscosity on the therapeutic effect of most medications. Further larger-scale studies are required to evaluate the therapeutic impact of thickener, on a bigger range of medications, factoring in other variables such as type of thickener, viscosity of thickener and duration of immersion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayne Atkin
- General Medicine, Kings College Hospital, Kings College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 9RS, UK
| | - Christopher Devaney
- Pharmacy, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Lewisham and Greenwich NHS Trust, Stadium Rd, London, SE18 4QH, UK.
| | - Yuki Yoshimatsu
- Elderly Care, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Lewisham and Greenwich NHS Trust, Stadium Rd, London, SE18 4QH, UK
- CEAR, University of Greenwich, London, UK
| | - David Smithard
- Elderly Care, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Lewisham and Greenwich NHS Trust, Stadium Rd, London, SE18 4QH, UK
- CEAR, University of Greenwich, London, UK
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Ilgaz F, Timur SS, Eylem CC, Nemutlu E, Erdem Ç, Eroğlu H, Gökmen-Özel H. Do Thickening Agents Used in Dysphagia Diet Affect Drug Bioavailability? Eur J Pharm Sci 2022; 174:106197. [PMID: 35489612 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2022.106197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Swallowing oral solid dosage forms is challenging in patients with dysphagia who are at risk of aspiration or choking. The most common method to facilitate drug administration in dysphagia patients is to mix the powdered drug with a small amount of thickened water, however little is known about the effects of this method on in vivo bioavailability of drugs. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of thickened liquids on dissolution rate and bioavailability of levetiracetam as a model drug. Powdered commercial tablets of levetiracetam, carbamazepine, atenolol and cefixime were mixed with water thickened with two commercial thickeners, modified maize starch (MS) and xanthan gam (XG), at three thickness levels: nectar, honey and pudding in test groups, and mixed with only water in the control group. At the first stage, the effects of thickened water on in vitro drug release of 4 drugs (levetiracetam, carbamazepine, atenolol and cefixime) were tested by using dialysis membrane method. Addition of both thickeners significantly reduced the release of three drugs compared to the control group, except carbamazepine. Levetiracetam which had the highest solubility was chosen as the model drug for in vivo experiments. In the second stage, New Zealand albino female rabbits (n=24) were divided into two groups as: control group (water+drug, n=6) and test group (thickened water+drug, n=18). Powdered levetiracetam tablets were mixed with water thickened with XG (n=9, 1.2 %, 2.4 %, 3.6 %) and MS (n=9, 4 %, 6%, 8 %) at three thickness levels and administered to the rabbits by intragastric gavage. Blood samples were collected at 9 time points following administration. After two-weeks of wash-out, test groups were crossed over and sample collection was repeated. Blood samples were analysed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). An in vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC) model was developed using in vitro drug dissolution (%) and in vivo plasma concentrations of levetiracetam for control group and test groups. The peak plasma concentration (Cmax) was lower and time to reach Cmax (tmax) was relatively higher in test groups compared to control group. The lowest Cmax was detected at the highest thickness level, however, the differences between groups were not statistically significant (p=0.117 and p=0.495 for Cmax and tmax, respectively). No significant difference in total amount of levetiracetam absorbed (AUC) was found between groups (p=0.215 and p=0.183 for AUCinfinity and AUClast, respectively). The comparisons according to the type of thickener also revealed that pharmacokinetic parameters did not significantly differ between groups, except for a significantly lower Cmax when drug was mixed with MS-thickened water at nectar consistency (1.2 %) compared to drug mixed with XG (4 %) at the same thickness level (p=0.038). A good correlation was observed between in vitro and in vivo data, which was characterized by higher r2 values as the concentration of the thickening agents was increased, but not for all thickness levels studied, indicating an inability of this in vitro model to fully predict the in vivo response. These results suggest that regardless of the thickness level, the administration of levetiracetam with two commercial thickening agents commonly used in dysphagia for safe swallowing, do not affect the pharmacokinetic efficiency and thus, the bioavailability of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatma Ilgaz
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hacettepe University, Ankara, 06100, Turkey.
| | - Selin Seda Timur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Ankara, 06100, Turkey.
| | - Cemil Can Eylem
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Ankara, 06100, Turkey.
| | - Emirhan Nemutlu
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Ankara, 06100, Turkey.
| | - ÇiğdemEroğlu Erdem
- Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Marmara University, Istanbul, 34722, Turkey.
| | - Hakan Eroğlu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Ankara, 06100, Turkey.
| | - Hülya Gökmen-Özel
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hacettepe University, Ankara, 06100, Turkey.
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Smart karaya-locust bean gum hydrogel particles for the treatment of hypertension: Optimization by factorial design and pre-clinical evaluation. Carbohydr Polym 2019; 210:274-288. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.01.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Bulut E, Dilek M. Development and characterization of pH-sensitive locust bean gum-alginate microspheres for controlled release of ibuprofen. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/s1773-2247(14)50127-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Cichero JAY. Thickening agents used for dysphagia management: effect on bioavailability of water, medication and feelings of satiety. Nutr J 2013; 12:54. [PMID: 23634758 PMCID: PMC3660277 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2891-12-54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Dysphagia is the medical term for difficulty swallowing. Thickened liquids are often used in the management of dysphagia to improve bolus control and to help prevent aspiration. A range of starches and gums has historically been used to thicken liquids. Although thickened liquids improve swallow safety, they appear to have a great potential for unintended physiological consequences. Initial concerns were raised about the impact of thickeners on water binding due to the high prevalence of dehydration amongst individuals with dysphagia. Thankfully, regardless of thickening agent, thickeners do not affect water bioavailability. This effect holds true even for extremely thick fluids. However, bioavailability of medication is impaired with viscous substances. Liquids thickened to as little as 150 mPa.s retards drug release. In addition, feelings of satiety and thirst increase with increasingly viscous fluids. Flavour deteriorates with increasing thickness regardless of thickening agent. Therapeutically clinicians often prescribe small volumes of thickened liquids, consumed often. Yet small volumes of thick substances consumed with a long oral processing time, which is common for individuals with dysphagia, reduces the amount consumed. A combination of poor flavour, and increasing feelings of fullness result in little motivation and poor physiologic drive to consume thickened liquids. This review provides evidence from the dysphagia, pharmaceutical and food technology literature to show unintended side effects of thickened liquids that contribute to dehydration and potential sub-theraputic medication levels for individuals with dysphagia. The physical property of viscosity rather than a particular thickening agent appears to be key. Provision of “spoon-thick” or “extremely thick liquids” is particularly likely to contribute to dehydration and poor bioavailability of solid dose medication. Clinicians are encouraged to prescribe the minimal level of thickness needed for swallowing safety. Consultation with pharmacy and dietetic staff is essential for optimum management of individuals with dysphagia. Given the aged population forecasts for the year 2050, improved dysphagia management should be a high priority.
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Kawata K, Hanawa T, Endo N, Suzuki M, Oguchi T. Formulation study on retinoic acid gel composed of iota-carrageenan, polyethylene oxide and Emulgen® 408. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2012; 60:825-30. [PMID: 22790813 DOI: 10.1248/cpb.c110500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, all-trans retinoic acid (RA) gels formulated with various compositions of polyethylene oxide (Emulgen®) and iota-carrageenan (ι-CG) were prepared and their physicochemical properties were evaluated. The compression energy, which is the work required to compress the product through a fixed distance, increased with increasing amount of ι-CG or Emulgen®. The adhesion energy and displacement decreased with increasing amount of ι-CG or Emulgen® due to the progression of gel formation. From the results of the sensory tests, the properties of RA gels such as adhesiveness, gel strength and spreadability seemed to be adjustable depending on the condition of skin by varying the components of RA gels. Through photostability study, the expiration date and storage conditions of RA gels were determined as "4°C for 28 d with no exposure to light."
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Affiliation(s)
- Keishi Kawata
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Yamanashi Hospital, Shimokato, Chuo, Yamanashi, Japan
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Dionísio M, Grenha A. Locust bean gum: Exploring its potential for biopharmaceutical applications. J Pharm Bioallied Sci 2012; 4:175-85. [PMID: 22923958 PMCID: PMC3425165 DOI: 10.4103/0975-7406.99013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2012] [Revised: 03/21/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Polysaccharides have been finding, in the last decades, very interesting and useful applications in the biomedical and, specifically, in the biopharmaceutical field. Locust bean gum is a polysaccharide belonging to the group of galactomannans, being extracted from the seeds of the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua). This polymer displays a number of appealing characteristics for biopharmaceutical applications, among which its high gelling capacity should be highlighted. In this review, we describe critical aspects of locust bean gum, contributing for its role in biopharmaceutical applications. Physicochemical properties, as well as strong and effective synergies with other biomaterials are described. The potential for in vivo biodegradation is explored and the specific biopharmaceutical applications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marita Dionísio
- CBME - Centre for Molecular and Structural Biomedicine/IBB - Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, Portugal
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Gohel MC, Bariya SH. Fabrication of triple-layer matrix tablets of venlafaxine hydrochloride using xanthan gum. AAPS PharmSciTech 2009; 10:624-30. [PMID: 19444618 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-009-9244-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2008] [Accepted: 04/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of present investigation was to develop venlafaxine hydrochloride-layered tablets for obtaining sustained drug release. The tablets containing venlafaxine hydrochloride 150 mg were prepared by wet granulation technique using xanthan gum in the middle layer and barrier layers. The granules and tablets were characterized. The in vitro drug dissolution study was conducted in distilled water. The tablets containing two lower strengths were also developed using the same percentage composition of the middle layer. Kinetics of drug release was studied. The optimized batches were tested for water uptake study. Radar diagrams are provided to compare the performance of formulated tablets with the reference products, Effexor XR capsules. The granules ready for compression exhibited good flow and compressibility when xanthan gum was used in the intragranular and extragranular fractions. Monolayer tablets failed to give the release pattern similar to that of the reference product. The drug release was best explained by Weibull model. A unified Weibull equation was evolved to express drug release from the formulated tablets. Lactose facilitated drug release from barrier layers. Substantial water uptake and gelling of xanthan gum appears to be responsible for sustained drug release. The present study underlines the importance of formulation factors in achieving same drug release pattern from three strengths of venlafaxine hydrochloride tablets.
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Factors affecting release rate of diltiazem hydrochloride from poly (2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) matrices. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2008; 63:146-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2007.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2007] [Revised: 11/21/2007] [Accepted: 11/26/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Hamcerencu M, Desbrieres J, Popa M, Khoukh A, Riess G. New unsaturated derivatives of Xanthan gum: Synthesis and characterization. POLYMER 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2007.01.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Rectal absorption and mucosal irritation of rectal gels containing buprenorphine hydrochloride prepared with water-soluble dietary fibers, xanthan gum and locust bean gum. J Control Release 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0168-3659(95)00096-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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