Early detection of locally recurrent rectal cancer by endosonography

Endoscopic surveillance after surgery for colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide and its global incidence is rapidly increasing among adults younger than 50 years, especially in the 20-39 age group. Once a curative resection is achieved, surveillance is mandatory. Colonoscopy has a pivotal role aimed at resecting premalignant neoplasms and detecting cancer at a curable stage. In the current review, an update on the role of surveillance colonoscopy after CRC is provided, considered the most recent international guidelines and evidence published on this issue. In particular, several questions have been answered, why, how and how often colonoscopy should be performed, whether intensive surveillance is more effective than standard surveillance, how endoscopically resected T1 cancer should be followed, the different management existing between colon and rectal cancer, and, finally, how to improve the endoscopic surveillance. In a period of resource constraints, appropriateness will be mandatory, thus understanding how to optimize the role of colonoscopy in the surveillance of patients with a history of CRC is of crucial importance. Improving the quality of colonoscopy and identifying risk factors for recurrent and new-onset CRC, will allow us to individualize the surveillance program while sparing health care cost.

Utility of Forward-View Echoendoscopy for Transcolonic Fine-Needle Aspiration of Extracolonic Lesions: An Institutional Experience

Background/Aims

Non-invasive tissue sampling from the lower intra-abdominal and pelvic cavity is challenging. The role of endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration (EUS-FNA) in this situation is not well-established because of the limitations of the curved linear-array echoendoscopy-EUS for colonic insertion. The aim of this study was to report our institutional experience of transcolonic EUS-FNA using forward-viewing therapeutic linear echoendoscopy-EUS (FV-EUS) in combination with fluoroscopic guidance.

Methods

Medical records of 13 patients who underwent transcolonic EUS-FNA of extracolonic lesions using FV-EUS in combination with fluoroscopic guidance at Aichi Cancer Center Hospital, Nagoya, Japan from June 2015 to November 2018 were retrospectively reviewed.

Results

Using FV-EUS under fluoroscopic guidance, the FNA procedure could be performed successfully in all patients (100% technical success), with a median procedure time of 31 minutes. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of EUS-FNA for detecting malignant lesions in this study were 91%, 100%, and 92%, respectively. There were no adverse events associated with the EUS-FNA procedure.

Conclusions

FV-EUS in combination with fluoroscopic guidance is an easy, safe, and effective technique for FNA of extracolonic lesions in the lower abdomen.

Early detection of colorectal cancer recurrence in patients undergoing surgery with curative intent: current status and challenges

Despite advances in neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapy, attention to proper surgical technique, and improved pathological staging for both the primary and metastatic lesions, almost half of all colorectal cancer patients will develop recurrent disease. More concerning, this includes ~25% of patients with theoretically curable node-negative, non-metastatic Stage I and II disease. Given the annual incidence of colorectal cancer, approximately 150,000 new patients are candidates each year for follow-up surveillance. When combined with the greater population already enrolled in a surveillance protocol, this translates to a tremendous number of patients at risk for recurrence. It is therefore imperative that strategies aim for detection of recurrence as early as possible to allow initiation of treatment that may still result in cure. Yet, controversy exists regarding the optimal surveillance strategy (high-intensity vs. traditional), ideal testing regimen, and overall effectiveness. While benefits may involve earlier detection of recurrence, psychological welfare improvement, and greater overall survival, this must be weighed against the potential disadvantages including more invasive tests, higher rates of reoperation, and increased costs. In this review, we will examine the current options available and challenges surrounding colorectal cancer surveillance and early detection of recurrence.

[Surgical approach to the locoregional recurrence of cancer of the rectum]

A literature review has been made on the pelvic recurrence of rectal cancer using the MedLine, Ovid, EMBASE, Cochrane and Cinahl data bases. Assessment of the locoregional recurrence must be made using imaging tests in order to rule out the presence of metastasis, as well as for locating its exact location within the pelvis. As the only curative treatment should be complete resection of the recurrence with negative margins, a pre-operative CT, NMR, endorectal ultrasound and PET-CT must be performed to determine its resectability. For a potential cure, radical resections must be made, with the technique varying according to whether the location is central (axial), posterior (presacral) or lateral, as well as treatment directed at the primary tumour. Neoadjuvant treatments, brachiterapy and intra-operative radiotherapy improve the local control results and survival in these patients.

Role of EUS and EUS-guided FNA in the diagnosis of rectal implantation cyst at an anastomosis site after a previous low anterior resection for a rectal cancer without evidence of cancer recurrence

BACKGROUND

Rectal implantation cysts occurring at an anastomosis site after a low anterior resection for rectal cancer need to be distinguished from locally recurrent rectal cancer.

OBJECTIVE

Our purpose was to evaluate the role of EUS and EUS-FNA in the diagnosis of rectal implantation cyst.

DESIGN

Case series.

PATIENTS

A review of medical records identified 3 men and 1 woman who were diagnosed with rectal implantation cyst by EUS and EUS-FNA.

RESULTS

All 4 cases had undergone a low anterior resection with the double-stapling technique for a rectal cancer from 12 to 67 months (median 33.8 months) earlier. Follow-up colonoscopy revealed a rectal submucosal tumor at an anastomosis site. EUS revealed cystic lesions with heterogeneous wall thickness from the third layer or the fourth layer to the surroundings. EUS-FNA revealed mucin that contained a few inflammatory cells and no malignant cells in any of the patients. From the findings of EUS and EUS-FNA, all patients were diagnosed with rectal implantation cyst, thus avoiding surgery.

LIMITATION

Small number of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

EUS and EUS-FNA are useful in the diagnosis of rectal implantation cyst and the avoidance of unnecessary radical surgery.

Management of early rectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Early rectal cancer (ERC) is adenocarcinoma that has invaded into, but not extended beyond, the submucosa of the rectum (that is a T1 tumour). Local excision is curative for low-risk ERCs but for high-risk cancers such management is controversial.

METHODS

This review is based on published literature obtained by searching the PubMed and Cochrane databases, and the bibliographies of extracted articles.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

ERC presents as a focus of malignancy within an adenoma, as a polyp, or as a small ulcerating adenocarcinoma. Preoperative staging relies on endorectal ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging. Pathological staging uses the Haggitt and Kikuchi classifications for adenocarcinoma in pedunculated and sessile polyps respectively. Lymph node metastases increase with the Kikuchi level, with a 1-3 per cent risk for submucosal layer (Sm) 1, 8 per cent for Sm2 and 23 per cent for Sm3 lesions. Low-risk ERCs may be treated endoscopically or by a transanal procedure. Transanal excision or transanal endoscopic microsurgery may be inadequate for high-risk ERCs and adjuvant chemoradiotherapy may be appropriate. There is a low rate of recurrence after local surgery for low-risk ERCs but this increases to up to 29 per cent for high-risk cancers.

Pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and management of colon cancer

Colon cancer is believed to arise from two types of precursor polyps via two distinct pathways: conventional adenomas by the conventional adenoma-to-carcinoma sequence and serrated adenomas according to the serrated adenoma-to-carcinoma theory. Conventional adenomas arise from mutation of the APC gene; progression to colon cancer is a multistep process. The fundamental genetic defect in serrated adenomas is unknown. Environmental factors can increase the risk for colon cancer. Advanced colon cancer often presents with symptoms, but early colon cancer and premalignant adenomatous polyps commonly are asymptomatic, rendering them difficult to detect and providing the rationale for mass screening of adults over age 50.

Endoscopic ultrasound in the diagnosis, staging and management of colorectal tumors

Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) has evolved as a useful technique for imaging and intervention in the colon and rectum. This article reviews the clinical applications of EUS for imaging and intervention in colorectal cancer, with an emphasis on the most recent clinical studies.

Endoscopic ultrasonography in the diagnosis and management of cancer

Since its development and introduction to clinical practice, endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) has progressed rapidly from being a purely imaging modality with limited use in the detection of small pancreatic cancers to one that can provide a tissue diagnosis by fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and deliver therapy. EUS has now firmly established a place as the investigation of choice in the diagnosis, locoregional staging and management of a wide range of gastrointestinal cancers. With the increasing use of FNA, the accuracy of EUS has substantially improved and may become a stand-alone investigation in some situations. However, it is recommended that a combination of information obtained from other imaging modalities and EUS is needed to maximize the accuracy, in particular to complete staging beyond locoregional stage. In addition to well-established indications, newer applications of EUS are emerging and are no longer limited to the gastrointestinal system. In lung cancer, EUS combined with endobronchial ultrasonography is emerging as an accurate, minimally invasive, nonsurgical alternative to staging of the mediastinum. Furthermore, the ability of EUS to acquire tissue safely and conveniently results in a potential role of the molecular diagnostics to enhance the performance of EUS-guided FNA. Besides a diagnostic role of EUS, there continues to be technological advances in the field of interventional EUS, with many potential applications under investigation. This review focuses on the current and future roles of EUS in the diagnosis and management of cancers.

Follow-up strategies for patients treated for non-metastatic colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

It is common clinical practice to follow patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) for several years following their definitive surgery and/or adjuvant therapy. Despite this widespread practice there is considerable controversy about how often patients should be seen, what tests should be performed and whether these varying strategies have any significant impact on patient outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

To review the available evidence concerning the benefits of intensive follow up of colorectal cancer patients with respect to survival. Secondary endpoints include time to diagnosis of recurrence, quality of life and the harms and costs of surveillance and investigations.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Relevant trials were identified by electronic searches of MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, CANCERLIT, Cochrane Controlled Trials Register, Science Citation Index, conference proceedings, trial registers, reference lists and contact with experts in the field.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Only randomised controlled trials comparing different follow-up strategies for patients with non-metastatic CRC treated with curative intent were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Trial eligibility and methodological quality were assessed independently by the three authors.

MAIN RESULTS

Eight studies were included in this update of the review. There was evidence that an overall survival benefit at five years exists for patients undergoing more intensive follow up OR was 0.73 (95% CI 0.59 to 0.91); and RD -0.06 (95% CI -0.11 to -0.02). The absolute number of recurrences was similar; OR was 0.91 (95% CI 0.75 to 1.10); and RD -0.02 (95% CI -0.06 to 0.02) and although the weighted mean difference for the time to recurrence was significantly reduced by -6.75 (95% CI -11.06 to -2.44) there was significant heterogeneity between the studies. Analyses demonstrated a mortality benefit for performing more tests versus fewer tests OR was 0.64 (95% CI 0.49 to 0.85), and RD -0.09 (95%CI -0.14 to -0.03) and liver imaging versus no liver imaging OR was 0.64 (95% CI 0.49 to 0.85), and RD -0.09 (95%CI -0.14 to -0.03). There were significantly more curative surgical procedures attempted in the intensively followed arm: OR 2.41(95% CI 1.63 to 3.54), RD 0.06 (95%CI 0.04 to 0.09). No useful data on quality of life, harms or cost-effectiveness were available for further analysis.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The results of our review suggest that there is an overall survival benefit for intensifying the follow up of patients after curative surgery for colorectal cancer. Because of the wide variation in the follow-up programmes used in the included studies it is not possible to infer from the data the best combination and frequency of clinic (or family practice) visits, blood tests, endoscopic procedures and radiological investigations to maximise the outcomes for these patients. Nor is it possible to estimate the potential harms or costs of intensifying follow up for these patients in order to adopt a cost-effective approach in this clinical area. Large clinical trials underway or about to commence are likely to contribute valuable further information to clarify these areas of clinical uncertainty.

Recent developments in the role of endoscopic ultrasonography in diseases of the colon and rectum

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Endoscopic ultrasound has evolved as a useful technique for imaging and intervention in a variety of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal diseases including diseases of the colon and rectum. This paper will review recent developments in endoscopic ultrasound for colorectal diseases.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies have shown significant clinical impact of endoscopic ultrasound in rectal cancer staging. Iliac lymph node evaluation by endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration may further expand the role of endoscopic ultrasound in rectal cancer. Three-dimensional endoscopic ultrasound may help decrease some of the errors of staging with two-dimensional endoscopic ultrasound and may further improve staging accuracy. Recent studies have confirmed continued problems with re-staging rectal cancer after chemoradiation. Endoscopic ultrasound-fine needle aspiration can be helpful in detecting local recurrence of rectal cancer and has been shown to be useful in evaluation of subepithelial masses of the colon and rectum and evaluation of rectosigmoid endometriosis.

SUMMARY

Endoscopic ultrasound continues to be useful for a variety of conditions of the colon and rectum with recent studies confirming its clinical impact as well as expanding its role into newer indications. Assessment for residual cancer after chemoradiation is still problematic and hopefully technological developments in ultrasound in the future may help in improving the accuracy of endoscopic ultrasound in this situation.

Preoperative loco-regional imaging in rectal cancer

Preoperative staging of rectal cancer can influence the choice of surgery and the use of neoadjuvant therapy. This review evaluates the use of endorectal ultrasound (ERUS) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the local staging of rectal cancer. Staging for distant metastases is beyond the scope of this review. A MEDLINE search for published work in English between 1984-2004 was carried out by entering the key words of ERUS, MRI and preoperative imaging and rectal cancer. Initially, 867 articles were retrieved. Abstracts were reviewed and papers selected according to the inclusion criteria of a minimum of 50 patients and papers published in English. Papers focusing on preoperative chemoradiotherapy and distal metastases were excluded. Thirty-one papers were included in the systematic review. The examination techniques and images obtained are discussed and the respective accuracy is reviewed. ERUS and MRI have complementary roles in the assessment of tumour depth. Ultrasound has an overall accuracy of 82% (T1, 2, 40-100%; T3, 4, 25-100%) and is particularly useful for early localized rectal cancers. MRI has an accuracy of 76% (T1, 2, 29-80%; T3, 4, 0-100%) and is useful in more advanced disease by providing clearer definition of the mesorectum and mesorectal fascia. Both methods have similar accuracy in the assessment of nodal metastases. Ultrasound is more operator dependent and accuracies improve with experience, but it is more portable and accessible than MRI. Improvements in technology and increased operator experience have led to more accurate preoperative staging. ERUS and MRI are complementary and are most accurate for early localized cancers and more advanced cancers, respectively.

The postoperative surveillance of patients with colon cancer and rectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Colon cancer is relatively common; however, the results of treatment have marginally improved over the last half century. Though about 85% of patients have colorectal tumors resected with curative intent, a significant number of these patients will eventually die from cancer. As a result, many clinicians have advocated intensive follow-up in such patients as an attempt to increase survival.

DATA SOURCES

A review of the literature focusing on studies that have specifically addressed postoperative surveillance programs in patients with colorectal cancer was conducted. Only studies with level A evidence were included. Further references were obtained through cross-referencing the bibliography cited in each work.

CONCLUSION

One of the six prospective randomized studies demonstrated a statistically significant survival benefit. Undoubtedly, survival benefits can be shown with a well-designed evidence-based follow-up strategy. However, well-designed large prospective multi-institutional randomized studies are needed to establish a consensus for follow-up.

Endorectal ultrasound-directed biopsy: a useful technique to detect local recurrence of rectal cancer

AIMS

This study assesses the value of endorectal ultrasound (ERUS)-directed biopsy in detecting local recurrence of rectal cancer.

METHODS

We reviewed the records of patients undergoing ERUS by a single surgeon for surveillance after treatment of rectal adenocarcinoma. Lesions suggestive of local recurrence underwent ERUS-assisted core-needle biopsy (EAB) via a proctoscope after precise ERUS localization or direct ERUS-guided biopsy (EGB) via a B&K Medical probe.

RESULTS

From 1991 to 2003, 525 patients underwent 2,490 surveillance ERUS. Of these patients, 51 underwent 62 biopsy sessions: 36 EGB and 26 EAB. The mean age of patients was 67.2 years (range 38-93 years); 22 (43%) were female. Only 11 patients (22%) had undergone prior radical resection of their primary tumor. No patient experienced a complication from the biopsies despite five being anticoagulated. Of 39 patients whose cancer recurrence was documented during follow-up, 32 (82%) were diagnosed at the initial biopsy session, and in five (13%), recurrence was detected only with ERUS. The combined sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of EAB and EGB in detecting recurrence was 83, 100, and 87%, respectively. In 26 patients with local recurrence, resection was performed with curative intent.

CONCLUSION

ERUS with biopsy is useful in detecting local recurrence after treatment of rectal cancer. It is safe, with a high diagnostic yield. It may be particularly useful in patients at higher risk for local recurrence (i.e., after endocavitary radiation and local excision) and may allow early detection of local recurrence, thereby permitting attempts at curative resection.

[Improvements in detection of rectal cancer recurrence by multiplanar reconstruction]

PURPOSE

To evaluate the advantages of multiplanar reconstruction and different axial slice thickness in diagnostic of rectal cancer recurrence after operation and radiotherapy.

METHOD

We included 83 patients after operation and radiotherapy of rectal cancer in this study. All patients got a minimum of three CT-examinations in their follow-up program. A total of 294 CT-scans were evaluated. Each examination was reviewed by two experienced radiologists in respect to recurrence. Each examination was presented in axial reconstruction with a slice sickness of 8, 5, and 1.25 mm and in multiplanar reconstruction. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and accuracy were calculated.

RESULTS

Multiplanar reconstructions showed better results for the detection of recurrence than axial reconstruction. A reduced slice thickness did not lead to better results in axial reconstruction. Multiplanar reconstruction showed a sensitivity of 0.88, a specificity of 0.98, an accuracy of 0.96 and a positive predictive value of 0,94, for axial reconstruction we calculated: 0.82, 0.97, 0.94 and 0.88, respectively. Sensitivity and accuracy showed a significant increase after the first and second examination.

CONCLUSION

Multiplanar reconstructions allow a significant better detection of rectal cancer recurrence when compared to axial reconstructions. Thinner axial slice thickness shows no diagnostic advantage.

Endosonographic imaging of anorectal diseases

OBJECTIVE

The normal sonographic anatomy of the anorectum, sonographic findings of anorectal diseases, and indications and limitations of endosonography compared with magnetic resonance imaging are reviewed. Methods. Endosonographic imaging was performed with a Siemens (Erlangen, Germany) FI 400 ultrasound scanner with an end-fire 7.5-MHz biplane endorectal probe and a B-K Medical (Sandhoften, Denmark) scanner with an 1850 axial-type side-fire 5.0- to 10.0-MHz rotating endoscopic probe.

RESULTS

Rectal carcinoma appears on endorectal sonography as a low-echogenicity lesion that abruptly interrupts the normal sequence of layers. The internal anal sphincter is seen very clearly on endoanal sonography, and it is easy to appreciate atrophy and small tears of this sphincter. Endoanal sonography cannot accurately show thinning of the external anal sphincter. Peroxide-enhanced endoanal sonography is especially useful for patients with recurrent perianal fistulas in whom scarring should be distinguished from recurrent fistulas and detection of the internal opening. However, sonography does not provide an adequate deep and global display of all adjacent pelvic and perineal spaces.

CONCLUSIONS

Endosonography can accurately stage primary rectal tumors and assess the internal anal sphincter. Peroxide-enhanced 3-dimensional imaging can increase the utility of endoanal sonography in detection and characterization of perianal fistulas and planning of optimal therapy. However, magnetic resonance imaging can be used a complementary modality to endosonography, especially for evaluation of external anal sphincter atrophy and deep pelvic inflammation.

Development of a cost-effective system for digital off-line analysis of transrectal ultrasound

BACKGROUND

Transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) is the most sensitive and accurate technique for preoperative staging and follow-up of rectal cancer. One of the most relevant problems of this technique is that the assessment of TRUS is possible only during real-time examination. Furthermore, interpretation of the ultrasound findings is difficult and requires long experience. We show the development of a new, cost-effective software solution for off-line examination and documentation of transrectal ultrasound.

METHODS

The ultrasound device is connected to a frame-grabber card in a standard PC. Video capturing is done using a freeware software solution and various video codecs. The whole examination course is recorded. The examiner only has to concentrate on producing an artifact-free realization of the examination.

RESULTS

The software solution offers a flexible review of each individual "frame" of the investigation on the personal computer, very similar to CT and MRI scans. Infiltration depth and lymph node status can be assessed at any time, independently of the investigation and the investigator. The picture quality is excellent even if a lossy codec is used. It is not necessary to do definitive assessment of the TRUS during the examination.

CONCLUSIONS

This new technique gives a cost-effective possibility for high-quality off-line staging, re-examination, re-evaluation, and documentation of rectal cancer. TRUS becomes an examiner-independent objective examination technique for staging and follow-up of rectal cancer.

Lokalrezidivdiagnostik des Rektumkarzinoms mittels Kontrastmittelanreicherungsverhalten im Mehrzeilen-Spiral-CT

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether the recurrence of rectal cancer could by diagnosed reliably by contrast enhancement.

METHOD

A total of 83 patients were included after surgery and radiotherapy for rectal cancer. All patients received a minimum of three CT-examinations in their follow-up program. The contrast enhancement between the native scan and after admission of 75 ml Iopromid 370 mg/ml was calculated, as was the correlation between muscle enhancement and the enhancement of the suspicious lesion.

RESULTS

The only acceptable results for the diagnosis of recurrence were established by using the difference in the density of the suspicious lesion before and after admission of contrast media. No statistically significant difference was found for any of the enhancement parameters examined.

CONCLUSION

Static contrast enhancement of a suspicious lesion in MD-CT cannot confirm the diagnosis of a recurrence.

Clinical applications of endoscopic ultrasound to oncology

Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) is a useful imaging modality in patients with certain gastrointestinal malignancies as well as lung cancer. In many cases, EUS has been shown to have superior staging accuracy compared with other imaging techniques such as computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography. This article will review the role of EUS in diagnosing and staging esophageal, rectal, pancreatic and lung cancers as well as subepithelial lesions. Newer therapeutic applications of EUS, namely endoscopic mucosal resection for removal of localized lesions as well as celiac plexus neurolysis for pain control, will also be discussed.

Screening and surveillance of colorectal cancer

Although colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of cancer deaths in the United States, it is preventable. Screening modalities include fecal occult blood testing, flexible sigmoidoscopy, double-contrast barium enema, and colonoscopy. Colonoscopy allows effective detection and removal of precursor adenomatous polyps and is the dominant CRC screening modality. Emerging technologies include CT and MR colonography and fecal DNA tests. Effective and cost-effective surveillance after polypectomy and curative CRC resection requires balancing the protective effect of polypectomy while maximizing intervals between examinations; thus, estimation of the risk of recurrence determines the intensity of surveillance for individual patients.

Endoscopic ultrasound for luminal malignancies

Luminal gastrointestinal (GI) tract cancers are responsible for substantial morbidity and mortality. Since the first pairing of ultrasonography with endoscopy in 1980, technologic advances and the increased availability of trained endosonographers have propelled endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) to the forefront of luminal GI cancer staging. In this article we discuss the role of EUS for evaluating luminal GI cancers.

From Colonic Polyps to Colon Cancer: Pathophysiology, Clinical Presentation, and Diagnosis

Epidemiologists, basic researchers, clinicians, and public health administrators unite! Develop and implement a simple, safe, and effective preventive and screening test for colon cancer. The public will willingly and enthusiastically accept such a test. Many thousands of lives are at stake every year.

ASGE guideline: the role of endoscopy in the diagnosis, staging, and management of colorectal cancer

This is one of a series of statements discussing the utilization of GI endoscopy in common clinical situations. The Standards of Practice Committee of the American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy prepared this text. In preparing this guideline, a MEDLINE literature search was performed, and additional references were obtained from the bibliographies of the identified articles and from recommendations of experts. When little or no data exist from well-designed prospective trials, emphasis is given to results from large series and reports from recognized experts. Guidelines for appropriate utilization of endoscopy are based on a critical review of the available data and expert consensus. Further controlled clinical studies are needed to clarify aspects of this statement and revision needed to clarify aspects of this statement and revision may be necessary as new data appear. Clinical consideration may justify a course of action at variance to the recommendations.

The pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and diagnosis of colon cancer and adenomatous polyps

A review of the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and diagnosis of colon cancer and colonic polyps is important and timely. This field is rapidly changing because of breakthroughs in the molecular basis of carcinogenesis and in the technology for colon cancer detection and treatment. This article reviews colon cancer and colonic polyps, with a focus on recent dramatic advances, to help the pri-mary care physician and internist appropriately refer patients for screening colonoscopy and intelligently evaluate colonoscopic findings to reduce the mortality from this cancer.

Comparison of linear array endoscopic ultrasound and helical computed tomography for the staging of periampullary malignancies

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to compare linear array endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) and helical computed tomography (CT) scan in the preoperative local staging evaluation of patients with periampullary tumors.

METHODS

Patients evaluated with EUS and CT for suspected periampullary malignancies from 1996 to 2000 were analyzed. Surgical/pathology staging results were the reference standard.

RESULTS

Forty-eight patients (28 men and 20 women; mean age, 62 +/- 4.9 years; range, 18-90 years) were identified. Malignancy was histologically confirmed in 44 patients. Parameters evaluated included tumor size, lymph node metastases, and major vascular invasion. EUS was significantly more sensitive (100%), specific (75%), and accurate (98%) than helical CT (68%, 50%, and 67%, respectively) for evaluation of the periampullary mass (P <.05). In addition, EUS detected regional lymph node metastases in more patients than helical CT. Sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of EUS were 61%, 100%, and 84%, in comparison to 33%, 92%, and 68%, respectively, with CT. Major vascular involvement was noted in 9 of 44 patients. EUS correctly identified vascular involvement in 100% compared with 45% with CT (P <.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Linear array EUS was consistently superior to helical CT in the preoperative local staging of periampullary malignancies.

EUS-FNA of recurrent postoperative extraluminal and metastatic malignancy

BACKGROUND

EUS-guided FNA is safe and accurate for the diagnosis of benign or malignant neoplasia and lymphadenopathy; however, its role in the diagnosis of recurrent malignancy is not well described.

METHODS

A prospectively updated EUS-guided FNA cytology database was used to identify patients in whom a diagnosis of postoperative, recurrent, extraluminal, or metastatic malignancy was made over a 5-year period. Only patients with a positive EUS-guided FNA were included in the analysis. All had undergone surgery for the primary malignancy and were in clinical and/or radiographic remission before the initial suspicion of tumor recurrence.

RESULTS

Twenty-one patients underwent EUS-guided FNA of 21 lesions (19 masses, 2 lymph nodes) because of a suspicion of recurrent malignancy based on CT (n = 17) or EUS (n = 4) findings. Median time from the initial diagnosis to recurrence was 26 months (range 5-276 months). Lesions were located in the pancreas (9 patients), mediastinum (7), liver (3), perigastric region (1), and liver hilum (1). EUS-guided FNA (mean number of needle passes, 4.5; range 2-8) obtained diagnostic material for recurrent malignancy in all patients as follows: esophageal (6 patients), renal cell (6), pancreatic (2), breast (2), colon (2), bile duct (1), Ewing's sarcoma (1), and lung (1) cancer. No complication was encountered. Transgastric EUS-guided FNA (4 patients), distal, or transesophageal EUS-FNA (2) proximal to a surgical anastomosis was required to confirm recurrence in all 6 patients with esophageal cancer. The initial cytologic diagnosis of recurrent malignancy was made by EUS in 20 of 21 (95%) patients. One patient with recurrent breast cancer had CT-guided FNA of a right lung mass preceding EUS-guided FNA of an AP window lymph node.

CONCLUSIONS

EUS-guided FNA can detect and safely diagnose recurrent malignancy in the mediastinum, retroperitoneum, and liver. When possible, correlation between EUS-guided FNA cytology and original tumor histopathology/cytology, or the use of immunostaining to confirm the diagnosis, is recommended.

Endoscopic ultrasound for rectal cancer

The application of EUS has improved the way we evaluate and manage patients with rectal cancer. EUS has substantially greater sensitivity than CT in detecting advanced T stage tumors. Such improved sensitivity results in changes in preoperative therapy that would not otherwise have occurred without EUS. Although the addition of FNA provides little incremental effect on patient management, it carries the most potential for impacting management in those patients with early T stage disease, and its use should be considered in this subgroup of patients. Whether the accurate staging ability of EUS translates into improved outcomes in terms of reduced recurrence rates and ultimately prolonged survival remains uncertain. This will require further long-term outcome studies focusing on the endpoint of tumor recurrence and patient survival.

Gastrointestinal endoscopic ultrasonography

Although conventional endoscopy provides excellent visualization of gastrointestinal mucosa, it provides little information about intramural or nearby extramural lesions. The imaging of intraabdominal structures by conventional transabdominal ultrasound is degraded by ultrasound energy attenuation with distance. The provision of an ultrasound probe on a flexible gastrointestinal endoscope, to form an echoendoscope, provides excellent imaging of the gastrointestinal wall and of adjacent extramural structures. During the last two decades, endoscopic ultrasound, using an echoendoscope, has revolutionized the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal diseases that affect the submucosa, deep bowel wall, and adjacent extramural structures. This article reviews the role of endoscopic ultrasound in the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal disease, including standard and promising new applications, as well as standard and emerging new technology.

Follow-up strategies for patients treated for non-metastatic colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

It is common clinical practise to follow patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) for several years following their definitive surgery and/or adjuvant therapy. Despite this widespread practice there is considerable controversy about how often patients should be seen, what tests should be performed and whether these varying strategies have any significant impact on patient outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

To review the available evidence concerning the benefits of intensive follow-up of colorectal cancer patients with respect to survival. Secondary endpoints include time to diagnosis of recurrence, quality of life and the harms and costs of surveillance and investigations.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Relevant trials were identified by electronic searches of MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, CANCERLIT, Cochrane Controlled Trials Register, Science Citation Index, conference proceedings, trial registers, reference lists and contact with experts in the field.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Only randomised controlled trials comparing different follow-up strategies for patients with non-metastatic CRC treated with curative intent were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Trial eligibility and methodological quality were assessed independently by the three reviewers.

MAIN RESULTS

Five trials were included. There was evidence that an overall survival benefit at 5 years exists for patients undergoing more intensive follow-up (OR = 0.67, 95% confidence interval 0.53 - 0.84; RD = -0.07, CI -0.12 - -0.02). The absolute number of recurrences was similar (OR = 0.91; 95% confidence interval 0.72 - 1.14; RD = 0.00, CI -0.07 - 0.07) and although the weighted mean difference for the time to recurrence was significantly reduced by 6.75 (95% confidence interval -11.06 - -2.44) there was significant heterogeneity between the studies. Analyses demonstrated a mortality benefit for performing more tests versus fewer tests (OR = 0.66; 95% confidence interval 0.46 - 0.95) and liver imaging versus no liver imaging (OR = 0.66; 95% confidence interval 0.46 - 0.95). However when both these results are expressed as a risk difference this significance is lost (RD = -0.06; CI -0.25 - 0.13). No useful data on quality of life, harms or cost-effectiveness were available for further analysis.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

The results of our review suggest that there is an overall survival benefit for intensifying the follow-up of patients after curative surgery for colorectal cancer. Because of the wide variation in the follow-up programmes used in the included studies it is not possible to infer from the data the best combination and frequency of clinic (or family practice) visits, blood tests, endoscopic procedures and radiological investigations to maximise the outcomes for these patients. Nor is it possible to estimate the potential harms or costs of intensifying follow-up for these patients in order to adopt a cost-effective approach in this clinical area. Large clinical trials underway or about to commence are likely to contribute valuable further information to clarify these areas of clinical uncertainty.

Is local excision adequate therapy for early rectal cancer?

PURPOSE

Radical surgery of rectal cancer is associated with significant morbidity, and some patients with low-lying lesions must accept a permanent colostomy. Several studies have suggested satisfactory tumor control after local excision of early rectal cancer. The purpose of this study was to compare recurrence and survival rates after treating early rectal cancers with local excision and radical surgery.

METHODS

One hundred eight patients with T1 and T2 rectal adenocarcinomas treated by transanal excision were compared with 153 patients with T1N0 and T2N0 rectal adenocarcinomas treated with radical surgery. Neither group received adjuvant chemoradiation. Mean follow-up time was 4.4 years after local excision and 4.8 years after radical surgery.

RESULTS

The estimated five-year local recurrence rate was 28 percent (18 percent for T1 tumors and 47 percent for T2 tumors) after local excision and 4 percent (none for T1 tumors and 6 percent for T2 tumors) after radical surgery. Overall recurrence was also higher after local excision (21 percent for T1 tumors and 47 percent for T2 tumors) than after radical surgery (9 percent for T1 tumors and 16 percent for T2 tumors). Twenty-four of 27 patients with recurrence after local excision underwent salvage surgery. The estimated five-year overall survival rate was 69 percent after local excision (72 percent for T1 tumors and 65 percent after T2 tumors) and 82 percent after radical surgery (80 percent for T1 tumors and 81 percent for T2 tumors). Differences in survival rate between local excision and radical surgery were statistically significant in patients with T2 tumors.

CONCLUSIONS

Local excision of early rectal cancer carries a high risk of local recurrence. Salvage surgery is possible in most patients with local recurrence, but may be effective only in patients with T1 tumors. When compared with radical surgery, local excision may compromise overall survival in patients with T2 rectal cancers.

Effectiveness of endoluminal sonography in the identification of occult local rectal cancer recurrences

PURPOSE

Local recurrence of rectal cancer after curative surgery appears in 5 to 30 percent of all cases. It is necessary to detect local recurrence in a resectable stage to have an opportunity for curative reintervention or palliative prevention of those symptoms. Because most local recurrences occur extraluminally, conventional follow-up fails to detect them at an early stage. Therefore, a prospective study was performed to assess the diagnostic potential of endorectal and endovaginal ultrasound to detect asymptomatic resectable local recurrence.

METHODS

In 338 patients 721 endoluminal ultrasound examinations were added to routine follow-up of rectal and left colonic cancer, with a mean of 2.1 (range, 1-10) endoluminal ultrasound examinations for each patient.

RESULTS

A total of 116 patients (34.3 percent) were shown to have local recurrence, which was suggested by endoluminal ultrasound and proven by endoluminal ultrasound-guided needle biopsy in all cases of unclear pararectal structures that could not be verified by endoscopic biopsy. Digital examination failed to detect local recurrence in 91 patients, endoscopy failed to detect local recurrence in 80 patients, and the levels of tumor markers were normal in 25 patients with confirmed local recurrence. In 33 cases of local recurrence, both digital examination and endoscopy results were normal. Twenty-five patients, in whom carcinoembryonic antigen levels, digital examination, and endoscopy results were normal, underwent potential curative reoperation, with total resection of the local recurrence. All 25 patients were still alive at the end of the study period, and 21 were free from disease. On the other hand, only 6 of 67 patients with local recurrence detectable by conventional follow-up could be operated on with curative intention.

CONCLUSION

Postoperative endoluminal ultrasound is able to detect local recurrence at an earlier and asymptomatic stage and can be verified by endosonography-guided needle biopsy. Routine use in follow-up may raise the ratio of curative retreatment by early detection of extramural local recurrence.

Tumor angiogenesis predicts recurrence with normal serum carcinoembryonic antigen in advanced rectal carcinoma patients

Many studies have established the usefulness of serum carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) oriented serial monitoring for predicting recurrence and prognosis; however, few studies have so far investigated serum CEA-negative recurrence. The aim of this study was to elucidate the nature of CEA-negative recurrence regarding tumor angiogenesis. Fifty-seven patients with T3/T4 rectal cancer were divided into the two groups according to the serum CEA status. Angiogenesis was defined as the intratumoral vessel count by immunohistochemical staining using CD31. The CD31 count was significantly higher in the recurrent patients in both groups and the ratio of nodal involvement was significantly higher in the recurrent patients of the CEA-negative group. Local recurrence mainly developed in the CEA-negative group; however, the CD31 count did not predict the sites of recurrence nor the relapse period in the both groups. A multivariate analysis showed a high CD31 count >26) to be a prognostic factor not only for recurrence but also for survival (P = 0.001, 0.043, respectively). These results suggest that a high degree of tumor angiogenesis in sections of T3/T4 rectal cancer may therefore be an important predictor for CEA-negative recurrence.