A kinetic framework for tRNA ligase and enforcement of a 2'-phosphate requirement for ligation highlights the design logic of an RNA repair machine

Characterization of tRNA splicing enzymes RNA ligase and tRNA 2'-phosphotransferase from the pathogenic fungi Mucorales

Fungal Trl1 is an essential trifunctional tRNA splicing enzyme that heals and seals tRNA exons with 2',3'-cyclic-PO4 and 5'-OH ends. Trl1 is composed of C-terminal cyclic phosphodiesterase and central polynucleotide kinase end-healing domains that generate the 3'-OH,2'-PO4 and 5'-PO4 termini required for sealing by an N-terminal ATP-dependent ligase domain. Trl1 enzymes are present in many human fungal pathogens and are promising targets for antifungal drug discovery because their domain structures and biochemical mechanisms are unique compared to the mammalian RtcB-type tRNA splicing enzyme. Here we report that Mucorales species (deemed high-priority human pathogens by WHO) elaborate a noncanonical tRNA splicing apparatus in which a monofunctional RNA ligase enzyme is encoded separately from any end-healing enzymes. We show that Mucor circinelloides RNA ligase (MciRNL) is active in tRNA splicing in vivo in budding yeast in lieu of the Trl1 ligase domain. Biochemical and kinetic characterization of recombinant MciRNL underscores its requirement for a 2'-PO4 terminus in the end-joining reaction, whereby the 2'-PO4 enhances the rates of RNA 5'-adenylylation (step 2) and phosphodiester synthesis (step 3) by ∼125-fold and ∼6200-fold, respectively. In the canonical fungal tRNA splicing pathway, the splice junction 2'-PO4 installed by RNA ligase is removed by a dedicated NAD+-dependent RNA 2'-phosphotransferase Tpt1. Here we identify and affirm by genetic complementation in yeast the biological activity of Tpt1 orthologs from three Mucorales species. Recombinant M. circinelloides Tpt1 has vigorous NAD+-dependent RNA 2'-phosphotransferase activity in vitro.

RNA Repair: Hiding in Plain Sight

Enzymes that phosphorylate, dephosphorylate, and ligate RNA 5' and 3' ends were discovered more than half a century ago and were eventually shown to repair purposeful site-specific endonucleolytic breaks in the RNA phosphodiester backbone. The pace of discovery and characterization of new candidate RNA repair activities in taxa from all phylogenetic domains greatly exceeds our understanding of the biological pathways in which they act. The key questions anent RNA break repair in vivo are (a) identifying the triggers, agents, and targets of RNA cleavage and (b) determining whether RNA repair results in restoration of the original RNA, modification of the RNA (by loss or gain at the ends), or rearrangements of the broken RNA segments (i.e., RNA recombination). This review provides a perspective on the discovery, mechanisms, and physiology of purposeful RNA break repair, highlighting exemplary repair pathways (e.g., tRNA restriction-repair and tRNA splicing) for which genetics has figured prominently in their elucidation.

Structural and biochemical insights into the molecular mechanism of TRPT1 for nucleic acid ADP-ribosylation

Nucleic acid ADP-ribosylation has been established as a novel modification found in a wide diversity of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. tRNA 2'-phosphotransferase 1 (TRPT1/TPT1/KptA) possesses ADP-ribosyltransferase (ART) activity and is able to ADP-ribosylate nucleic acids. However, the underlying molecular mechanism remains elusive. Here, we determined crystal structures of TRPT1s in complex with NAD+ from Homo sapiens, Mus musculus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Our results revealed that the eukaryotic TRPT1s adopt common mechanisms for both NAD+ and nucleic acid substrate binding. The conserved SGR motif induces a significant conformational change in the donor loop upon NAD+ binding to facilitate the catalytic reaction of ART. Moreover, the nucleic acid-binding residue redundancy provides structural flexibility to accommodate different nucleic acid substrates. Mutational assays revealed that TRPT1s employ different catalytic and nucleic acid-binding residues to perform nucleic acid ADP-ribosylation and RNA 2'-phosphotransferase activities. Finally, cellular assays revealed that the mammalian TRPT1 is able to promote endocervical HeLa cell survival and proliferation. Together, our results provide structural and biochemical insights into the molecular mechanism of TRPT1 for nucleic acid ADP-ribosylation.

The life and times of a tRNA

The study of eukaryotic tRNA processing has given rise to an explosion of new information and insights in the last several years. We now have unprecedented knowledge of each step in the tRNA processing pathway, revealing unexpected twists in biochemical pathways, multiple new connections with regulatory pathways, and numerous biological effects of defects in processing steps that have profound consequences throughout eukaryotes, leading to growth phenotypes in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and to neurological and other disorders in humans. This review highlights seminal new results within the pathways that comprise the life of a tRNA, from its birth after transcription until its death by decay. We focus on new findings and revelations in each step of the pathway including the end-processing and splicing steps, many of the numerous modifications throughout the main body and anticodon loop of tRNA that are so crucial for tRNA function, the intricate tRNA trafficking pathways, and the quality control decay pathways, as well as the biogenesis and biology of tRNA-derived fragments. We also describe the many interactions of these pathways with signaling and other pathways in the cell.

Led-Seq: ligation-enhanced double-end sequence-based structure analysis of RNA

Structural analysis of RNA is an important and versatile tool to investigate the function of this type of molecules in the cell as well as in vitro. Several robust and reliable procedures are available, relying on chemical modification inducing RT stops or nucleotide misincorporations during reverse transcription. Others are based on cleavage reactions and RT stop signals. However, these methods address only one side of the RT stop or misincorporation position. Here, we describe Led-Seq, a new approach based on lead-induced cleavage of unpaired RNA positions, where both resulting cleavage products are investigated. The RNA fragments carrying 2', 3'-cyclic phosphate or 5'-OH ends are selectively ligated to oligonucleotide adapters by specific RNA ligases. In a deep sequencing analysis, the cleavage sites are identified as ligation positions, avoiding possible false positive signals based on premature RT stops. With a benchmark set of transcripts in Escherichia coli, we show that Led-Seq is an improved and reliable approach based on metal ion-induced phosphodiester hydrolysis to investigate RNA structures in vivo.

cyPhyRNA-seq: a genome-scale RNA-seq method to detect active self-cleaving ribozymes by capturing RNAs with 2',3' cyclic phosphates and 5' hydroxyl ends

Self-cleaving ribozymes are catalytically active RNAs that cleave themselves into a 5′-fragment with a 2′,3′-cyclic phosphate and a 3′-fragment with a 5′-hydroxyl. They are widely applied for the construction of synthetic RNA devices and RNA-based therapeutics. However, the targeted discovery of self-cleaving ribozymes remains a major challenge. We developed a transcriptome-wide method, called cyPhyRNA-seq, to screen for ribozyme cleavage fragments in total RNA extract. This approach employs the specific ligation-based capture of ribozyme 5′-fragments using a variant of the Arabidopsis thaliana tRNA ligase we engineered. To capture ribozyme 3′-fragments, they are enriched from total RNA by enzymatic treatments. We optimized and enhanced the individual steps of cyPhyRNA-seq in vitro and in spike-in experiments. Then, we applied cyPhyRNA-seq to total RNA isolated from the bacterium Desulfovibrio vulgaris and detected self-cleavage of the three predicted type II hammerhead ribozymes, whose activity had not been examined to date. cyPhyRNA-seq can be used for the global analysis of active self-cleaving ribozymes with the advantage to capture both ribozyme cleavage fragments from total RNA. Especially in organisms harbouring many self-cleaving RNAs, cyPhyRNA-seq facilitates the investigation of cleavage activity. Moreover, this method has the potential to be used to discover novel self-cleaving ribozymes in different organisms.

Atomic structures of the RNA end-healing 5'-OH kinase and 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase domains of fungal tRNA ligase: conformational switches in the kinase upon binding of the GTP phosphate donor

Fungal tRNA ligase (Trl1) rectifies RNA breaks with 2′,3′-cyclic-PO₄ and 5′-OH termini. Trl1 consists of three catalytic modules: an N-terminal ligase (LIG) domain; a central polynucleotide kinase (KIN) domain; and a C-terminal cyclic phosphodiesterase (CPD) domain. Trl1 enzymes found in all human fungal pathogens are untapped targets for antifungal drug discovery. Here we report a 1.9 Å crystal structure of Trl1 KIN-CPD from the pathogenic fungus Candida albicans, which adopts an extended conformation in which separate KIN and CPD domains are connected by an unstructured linker. CPD belongs to the 2H phosphotransferase superfamily by dint of its conserved central concave β sheet and interactions of its dual HxT motif histidines and threonines with phosphate in the active site. Additional active site motifs conserved among the fungal CPD clade of 2H enzymes are identified. We present structures of the Candida Trl1 KIN domain at 1.5 to 2.0 Å resolution—as apoenzyme and in complexes with GTP•Mg²⁺, IDP•PO₄, and dGDP•PO₄—that highlight conformational switches in the G-loop (which recognizes the guanine base) and lid-loop (poised over the nucleotide phosphates) that accompany nucleotide binding.

Structure and two-metal mechanism of fungal tRNA ligase

Fungal tRNA ligase (Trl1) is an essential enzyme that repairs RNA breaks with 2′,3′-cyclic-PO₄ and 5′-OH ends inflicted during tRNA splicing and non-canonical mRNA splicing in the fungal unfolded protein response. Trl1 is composed of C-terminal cyclic phosphodiesterase (CPD) and central GTP-dependent polynucleotide kinase (KIN) domains that heal the broken ends to generate the 3′-OH,2′-PO₄ and 5′-PO₄ termini required for sealing by an N-terminal ATP-dependent ligase domain (LIG). Here we report crystal structures of the Trl1-LIG domain from Chaetomium thermophilum at two discrete steps along the reaction pathway: the covalent LIG-(lysyl-Nζ)–AMP•Mn²⁺ intermediate and a LIG•ATP•(Mn²⁺)₂ Michaelis complex. The structures highlight a two-metal mechanism whereby a penta-hydrated metal complex stabilizes the transition state of the ATP α phosphate and a second metal bridges the β and γ phosphates to help orient the pyrophosphate leaving group. A LIG-bound sulfate anion is a plausible mimetic of the essential RNA terminal 2′-PO₄. Trl1-LIG has a distinctive C-terminal domain that instates fungal Trl1 as the founder of an Rnl6 clade of ATP-dependent RNA ligase. We discuss how the Trl1-LIG structure rationalizes the large body of in vivo structure–function data for Saccharomyces cerevisiae Trl1.

Structure-Function Analysis of the Phosphoesterase Component of the Nucleic Acid End-Healing Enzyme Runella slithyformis HD-Pnk

Runella slithyformis HD-Pnk is the prototype of a family of dual 5' and 3' nucleic acid end-healing enzymes that phosphorylate 5'-OH termini and dephosphorylate 2',3'-cyclic-PO₄, 3'-PO₄, and 2'-PO₄ ends. HD-Pnk is composed of an N-terminal HD phosphohydrolase module and a C-terminal P-loop polynucleotide kinase module. Here, we probed the phosphoesterase activity of HD-Pnk by querying its ability to hydrolyze non-nucleic acid phosphoester substrates and by conducting a mutational analysis of conserved amino acid constituents of the HD domain. We report that HD-Pnk catalyzes vigorous hydrolysis of p-nitrophenylphosphate (K_m = 3.13 mM; k _cat = 27.8 s^-1) using copper as its metal cofactor. Mutagenesis identified Gln28, His33, His73, Asp74, Lys77, His94, His127, Asp162, and Arg166 as essential for p-nitrophenylphosphatase and DNA 3' phosphatase activities. Structural modeling places these residues at the active site, wherein His33, His73, Asp74, His94, and His127 are predicted to coordinate a binuclear metal complex and Lys77 and Arg166 engage the scissile phosphate. HD-Pnk homologs are distributed broadly (and exclusively) in bacteria, usually in a two-gene cluster with a putative ATP-dependent polynucleotide ligase (LIG). We speculate that HD-Pnk and LIG comprise the end-healing and end-sealing components of a bacterial nucleic acid repair pathway.IMPORTANCE 5'-end healing and 3'-end healing are key steps in nucleic acid break repair in which 5'-OH ends are phosphorylated by a polynucleotide kinase, and 3'-PO₄ or 2',3'-cyclic-PO₄ ends are hydrolyzed by a phosphoesterase to generate 5'-PO₄ and 3'-OH termini needed for joining by DNA and RNA ligases. This study interrogates, biochemically and via mutagenesis, the phosphoesterase activity of Runella slithyformis HD-Pnk, a bifunctional bacterial 5'- and 3'-end-healing enzyme composed of HD phosphoesterase and P-loop kinase modules. HD-Pnk homologs are found in 129 bacterial genera from 11 phyla. In 123/129 instances, HD-Pnk is encoded in an operon-like gene cluster with a putative ATP-dependent polynucleotide ligase (LIG), suggesting that HD-Pnk and LIG are agents of a conserved bacterial nucleic acid repair pathway.

NAD+-dependent synthesis of a 5'-phospho-ADP-ribosylated RNA/DNA cap by RNA 2'-phosphotransferase Tpt1

RNA 2′-phosphotransferase Tpt1 converts an internal RNA 2′-monophosphate to a 2′-OH via a two-step NAD⁺-dependent mechanism in which: (i) the 2′-phosphate attacks the C1″ of NAD⁺ to expel nicotinamide and form a 2′-phospho-ADP-ribosylated RNA intermediate; and (ii) the ADP-ribose O2″ attacks the phosphate of the RNA 2′-phospho-ADPR intermediate to expel the RNA 2′-OH and generate ADP-ribose 1″–2″ cyclic phosphate. Tpt1 is an essential component of the fungal tRNA splicing pathway that generates a unique 2′-PO₄, 3′-5′ phosphodiester splice junction during tRNA ligation. The wide distribution of Tpt1 enzymes in taxa that have no fungal-type RNA ligase raises the prospect that Tpt1 might catalyze reactions other than RNA 2′-phosphate removal. A survey of Tpt1 enzymes from diverse sources reveals that whereas all of the Tpt1 enzymes are capable of NAD⁺-dependent conversion of an internal RNA 2′-PO₄ to a 2′-OH (the canonical Tpt1 reaction), a subset of Tpt1 enzymes also catalyzed NAD⁺-dependent ADP-ribosylation of an RNA or DNA 5′-monophosphate terminus. Aeropyrum pernix Tpt1 (ApeTpt1) is particularly adept in this respect. One-step synthesis of a 5′-phospho-ADP-ribosylated cap structure by ApeTpt1 (with no subsequent 5′-phosphotransferase step) extends the repertoire of the Tpt1 enzyme family and the catalogue of ADP-ribosylation reactions involving nucleic acid acceptors.

Structure of tRNA splicing enzyme Tpt1 illuminates the mechanism of RNA 2'-PO4 recognition and ADP-ribosylation

Tpt1 is an essential agent of fungal tRNA splicing that removes the 2′-PO₄ at the splice junction generated by fungal tRNA ligase. Tpt1 catalyzes a unique two-step reaction whereby the 2′-PO₄ attacks NAD⁺ to form an RNA-2′-phospho-ADP-ribosyl intermediate that undergoes transesterification to yield 2′-OH RNA and ADP-ribose-1″,2″-cyclic phosphate products. Because Tpt1 is inessential in exemplary bacterial and mammalian taxa, Tpt1 is seen as an attractive antifungal target. Here we report a 1.4 Å crystal structure of Tpt1 in a product-mimetic complex with ADP-ribose-1″-phosphate in the NAD⁺ site and pAp in the RNA site. The structure reveals how Tpt1 recognizes a 2′-PO₄ RNA splice junction and the mechanism of RNA phospho-ADP-ribosylation. This study also provides evidence that a bacterium has an endogenous phosphorylated substrate with which Tpt1 reacts.

Tpt1 catalyzes the final essential step in yeast tRNA splicing and is a potential antifungal target. Here the authors provide structural insights into how Tpt1 recognizes a 2’-PO₄ RNA splice junction and the mechanism of RNA phospho-ADP-ribosylation.

Two-step mechanism and step-arrest mutants of Runella slithyformis NAD+-dependent tRNA 2'-phosphotransferase Tpt1

Tpt1 catalyzes the transfer of an internal 2'-monophosphate moiety (2'-PO₄) from a "branched" 2'-PO₄ RNA splice junction to NAD⁺ to form a "clean" 2'-OH, 3'-5' phosphodiester junction, ADP-ribose 1″-2″ cyclic phosphate, and nicotinamide. First discovered as an essential component of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae tRNA splicing machinery, Tpt1 is widely distributed in nature, including in taxa that have no yeast-like RNA splicing system. Here we characterize the RslTpt1 protein from the bacterium Runella slithyformis, in which Tpt1 is encoded within a putative RNA repair gene cluster. We find that (i) expression of RslTpt1 in yeast complements a lethal tpt1Δ knockout, and (ii) purified recombinant RslTpt1 is a bona fide NAD⁺-dependent 2'-phosphotransferase capable of completely removing an internal 2'-phosphate from synthetic RNAs. The in vivo activity of RslTpt1 is abolished by alanine substitutions for conserved amino acids Arg16, His17, Arg64, and Arg119. The R64A, R119A, and H17A mutants accumulate high levels of a 2'-phospho-ADP-ribosylated RNA reaction intermediate (2'-P-ADPR, evanescent in the wild-type RslTpt1 reaction), which is converted slowly to a 2'-OH RNA product. The R16A mutant is 300-fold slower than wild-type RslTpt1 in forming the 2'-P-ADPR intermediate. Whereas wild-type RsTpt1 rapidly converts the isolated 2'-P-ADPR intermediate to 2'-OH product in the absence of NAD⁺, the H17A, R119A, R64A, and R16A mutant are slower by factors of 3, 33, 210, and 710, respectively. Our results identify active site constituents involved in the catalysis of step 1 and step 2 of the Tpt1 reaction pathway.

Deinococcus radiodurans HD-Pnk, a Nucleic Acid End-Healing Enzyme, Abets Resistance to Killing by Ionizing Radiation and Mitomycin C

5'- and 3'-end healing are key steps in nucleic acid break repair in which 5'-OH and 3'-PO₄ or 2',3'-cyclic-PO₄ ends are converted to 5'-PO₄ and 3'-OH termini suitable for sealing by polynucleotide ligases. Here, we characterize Deinococcus radiodurans HD-Pnk as a bifunctional end-healing enzyme composed of N-terminal HD (histidine-aspartate) phosphoesterase and C-terminal P-loop polynucleotide kinase (Pnk) domains. HD-Pnk phosphorylates 5'-OH DNA in the presence of ATP and magnesium. HD-Pnk has 3'-phosphatase and 2',3'-cyclic-phosphodiesterase activity in the presence of transition metals, optimally cobalt or copper, and catalyzes copper-dependent hydrolysis of p-nitrophenylphosphate. HD-Pnk is encoded by the LIG-PARG-HD-Pnk three-gene operon, which includes polynucleotide ligase and poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase genes. We show that whereas HD-Pnk is inessential for Deinococcus growth, its absence sensitizes by 80-fold bacteria to killing by 9 kGy of ionizing radiation (IR). HD-Pnk protein is depleted during early stages of post-IR recovery and then replenished at 15 h, after reassembly of the genome from shattered fragments. ΔHD-Pnk mutant cells are competent for genome reassembly, as gauged by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Our findings suggest a role for HD-Pnk in repairing residual single-strand gaps or nicks in the reassembled genome. HD-Pnk-Ala mutations that ablate kinase or phosphoesterase activity sensitize Deinococcus to killing by mitomycin C.IMPORTANCE End healing is a process whereby nucleic acid breaks with "dirty" 3'-PO₄ or 2',3'-cyclic-PO₄ and 5'-OH ends are converted to 3'-OH and 5'-PO₄ termini that are amenable to downstream repair reactions. Deinococcus radiodurans is resistant to massive doses of ionizing radiation (IR) that generate hundreds of dirty DNA double-strand breaks and thousands of single-strand breaks. This study highlights Deinococcus HD-Pnk as a bifunctional 3'- and 5'-end-healing enzyme that helps protect against killing by IR. HD-Pnk appears to act late in the process of post-IR recovery, subsequent to genome reassembly from shattered fragments. HD-Pnk also contributes to resistance to killing by mitomycin C. These findings are significant in that they establish a role for end-healing enzymes in bacterial DNA damage repair.

Architecture of the U6 snRNP reveals specific recognition of 3'-end processed U6 snRNA

The spliceosome removes introns from precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) to produce mature mRNA. Prior to catalysis, spliceosomes are assembled de novo onto pre-mRNA substrates. During this assembly process, U6 small nuclear RNA (snRNA) undergoes extensive structural remodeling. The early stages of this remodeling process are chaperoned by U6 snRNP proteins Prp24 and the Lsm2-8 heteroheptameric ring. We now report a structure of the U6 snRNP from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The structure reveals protein-protein contacts that position Lsm2-8 in close proximity to the chaperone "active site" of Prp24. The structure also shows how the Lsm2-8 ring specifically recognizes U6 snRNA that has been post-transcriptionally modified at its 3' end, thereby elucidating the mechanism by which U6 snRNPs selectively recruit 3' end-processed U6 snRNA into spliceosomes. Additionally, the structure reveals unanticipated homology between the C-terminal regions of Lsm8 and the cytoplasmic Lsm1 protein involved in mRNA decay.

Structural basis for the GTP specificity of the RNA kinase domain of fungal tRNA ligase

Fungal tRNA ligase (Trl1) is an essential enzyme that repairs RNA breaks with 2′,3′-cyclic-PO₄ and 5′-OH ends inflicted during tRNA splicing and non-canonical mRNA splicing in the fungal unfolded protein response. Trl1 is composed of C-terminal cyclic phosphodiesterase and central polynucleotide kinase domains that heal the broken ends to generate the 3′-OH,2′-PO₄ and 5′-PO₄ termini required for sealing by an N-terminal ligase domain. Trl1 enzymes are found in all human fungal pathogens and are promising targets for antifungal drug discovery because their domain compositions and biochemical mechanisms are unique compared to the mammalian RtcB-type tRNA splicing enzyme. A distinctive feature of Trl1 is its preferential use of GTP as phosphate donor for the RNA kinase reaction. Here we report the 2.2 Å crystal structure of the kinase domain of Trl1 from the fungal pathogen Candida albicans with GDP and Mg²⁺ in the active site. The P-loop phosphotransferase fold of the kinase is embellished by a unique ‘G-loop’ element that accounts for guanine nucleotide specificity. Mutations of amino acids that contact the guanine nucleobase efface kinase activity in vitro and Trl1 function in vivo. Our findings fortify the case for the Trl1 kinase as an antifungal target.

Usb1 controls U6 snRNP assembly through evolutionarily divergent cyclic phosphodiesterase activities

U6 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) biogenesis is essential for spliceosome assembly, but not well understood. Here, we report structures of the U6 RNA processing enzyme Usb1 from yeast and a substrate analog bound complex from humans. Unlike the human ortholog, we show that yeast Usb1 has cyclic phosphodiesterase activity that leaves a terminal 3′ phosphate which prevents overprocessing. Usb1 processing of U6 RNA dramatically alters its affinity for cognate RNA-binding proteins. We reconstitute the post-transcriptional assembly of yeast U6 snRNP in vitro, which occurs through a complex series of handoffs involving 10 proteins (Lhp1, Prp24, Usb1 and Lsm2–8) and anti-cooperative interactions between Prp24 and Lhp1. We propose a model for U6 snRNP assembly that explains how evolutionarily divergent and seemingly antagonistic proteins cooperate to protect and chaperone the nascent snRNA during its journey to the spliceosome.

The mechanism of U6 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) biogenesis is not well understood. Here the authors characterize the enzymatic activities and structures of yeast and human U6 RNA processing enzyme Usb1, reconstitute post-transcriptional assembly of yeast U6 snRNP in vitro, and propose a model for U6 snRNP assembly.

Characterization and role of a 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase from Deinococcus radiodurans

OBJECTIVES

A 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase gene (drCPDase) has been characterized from Deinococcus radiodurans and is involved in the robust resistance of this organism.

RESULTS

Cells lacking 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase gene (drCPDase) showed modest growth defects and displayed increased sensitivities to high doses of various DNA-damaging agents including ionizing radiation, mitomycin C, UV and H₂O₂. The transcriptional level of drCPDase increased after H₂O₂ treatment. Additional nucleotide monophosphate partially recovered the phenotype of drCPDase knockout cells. Complementation of E. coli with drCPDase resulted in enhanced H₂O₂ resistance.

CONCLUSIONS

The 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase (drCPDase) contributes to the extreme resistance of D. radiodurans and is presumably involved in damaged nucleotide detoxification.

Characterization of Runella slithyformis HD-Pnk, a Bifunctional DNA/RNA End-Healing Enzyme Composed of an N-Terminal 2',3'-Phosphoesterase HD Domain and a C-Terminal 5'-OH Polynucleotide Kinase Domain

5'- and 3'-end-healing reactions are key steps in nucleic acid break repair in which 5'-OH ends are phosphorylated by a polynucleotide kinase (Pnk) and 3'-PO₄ or 2',3'-cyclic-PO₄ ends are hydrolyzed by a phosphoesterase to generate the 5'-PO₄ and 3'-OH termini required for sealing by classic polynucleotide ligases. End-healing and sealing enzymes are present in diverse bacterial taxa, often organized as modular units within a single multifunctional polypeptide or as subunits of a repair complex. Here we identify and characterize Runella slithyformis HD-Pnk as a novel bifunctional end-healing enzyme composed of an N-terminal 2',3'-phosphoesterase HD domain and a C-terminal 5'-OH polynucleotide kinase P-loop domain. HD-Pnk phosphorylates 5'-OH polynucleotides (9-mers or longer) in the presence of magnesium and any nucleoside triphosphate donor. HD-Pnk dephosphorylates RNA 2',3'-cyclic phosphate, RNA 3'-phosphate, RNA 2'-phosphate, and DNA 3'-phosphate ends in the presence of a transition metal cofactor, which can be nickel, copper, or cobalt. HD-Pnk homologs are present in genera from 11 bacterial phyla and are often encoded in an operon with a putative ATP-dependent polynucleotide ligase. IMPORTANCE The present study provides insights regarding the diversity of nucleic acid repair strategies via the characterization of Runella slithyformis HD-Pnk as the exemplar of a novel clade of dual 5'- and 3'-end-healing enzymes that phosphorylate 5'-OH termini and dephosphorylate 2',3'-cyclic-PO₄, 3'-PO₄, and 2'-PO₄ ends. The distinctive feature of HD-Pnk is its domain composition, i.e., a fusion of an N-terminal HD phosphohydrolase module and a C-terminal P-loop polynucleotide kinase module. Homologs of Runella HD-Pnk with the same domain composition, same domain order, and similar polypeptide sizes are distributed widely among genera from 11 bacterial phyla.

Characterization of the tRNA ligases of pathogenic fungi Aspergillus fumigatus and Coccidioides immitis

Yeast tRNA ligase (Trl1) is an essential trifunctional enzyme that repairs RNA breaks with 2',3'-cyclic-PO4 and 5'-OH ends. Trl1 is composed of C-terminal cyclic phosphodiesterase and central polynucleotide kinase domains that heal the broken ends to generate the 3'-OH, 2'-PO4, and 5'-PO4 termini required for sealing by an N-terminal ligase domain. Trl1 enzymes are found in all human fungal pathogens and they are promising targets for antifungal drug discovery because: (i) their domain structures and biochemical mechanisms are unique compared to the mammalian RtcB-type tRNA splicing enzyme; and (ii) there are no obvious homologs of the Trl1 ligase domain in mammalian proteomes. Here we characterize the tRNA ligases of two human fungal pathogens: Coccidioides immitis and Aspergillus fumigatus The biological activity of CimTrl1 and AfuTrl1 was verified by showing that their expression complements a Saccharomyces cerevisiae trl1Δ mutant. Purified recombinant AfuTrl1 and CimTrl1 proteins were catalytically active in joining 2',3'-cyclic-PO4 and 5'-OH ends in vitro, either as full-length proteins or as a mixture of separately produced healing and sealing domains. The biochemical properties of CimTrl1 and AfuTrl1 are similar to those of budding yeast Trl1, particularly with respect to their preferential use of GTP as the phosphate donor for the polynucleotide kinase reaction. Our findings provide genetic and biochemical tools to screen for inhibitors of tRNA ligases from pathogenic fungi.

Modulating Salmonella Typhimurium's Response to a Changing Environment through Bacterial Enhancer-Binding Proteins and the RpoN Regulon

Transcription sigma factors direct the selective binding of RNA polymerase holoenzyme (Eσ) to specific promoters. Two families of sigma factors determine promoter specificity, the σ(70) (RpoD) family and the σ(54) (RpoN) family. In transcription controlled by σ(54), the Eσ(54)-promoter closed complex requires ATP hydrolysis by an associated bacterial enhancer-binding protein (bEBP) for the transition to open complex and transcription initiation. Given the wide host range of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, it is an excellent model system for investigating the roles of RpoN and its bEBPs in modulating the lifestyle of bacteria. The genome of S. Typhimurium encodes 13 known or predicted bEBPs, each responding to a unique intracellular or extracellular signal. While the regulons of most alternative sigma factors respond to a specific environmental or developmental signal, the RpoN regulon is very diverse, controlling genes for response to nitrogen limitation, nitric oxide stress, availability of alternative carbon sources, phage shock/envelope stress, toxic levels of zinc, nucleic acid damage, and other stressors. This review explores how bEBPs respond to environmental changes encountered by S. Typhimurium during transmission/infection and influence adaptation through control of transcription of different components of the S. Typhimurium RpoN regulon.

The essential function of the Trypanosoma brucei Trl1 homolog in procyclic cells is maturation of the intron-containing tRNATyr

Trypanosoma brucei, the etiologic agent of sleeping sickness, encodes a single intron-containing tRNA, tRNA(Tyr), and splicing is essential for its viability. In Archaea and Eukarya, tRNA splicing requires a series of enzymatic steps that begin with intron cleavage by a tRNA-splicing endonuclease and culminates with joining the resulting tRNA exons by a splicing tRNA ligase. Here we explored the function of TbTrl1, the T. brucei homolog of the yeast Trl1 tRNA ligase. We used a combination of RNA interference and molecular biology approaches to show that down-regulation of TbTrl1 expression leads to accumulation of intron-containing tRNA(Tyr) and a concomitant growth arrest at the G1 phase. These defects were efficiently rescued by expression of an "intronless" version of tRNA(Tyr) in the same RNAi cell line. Taken together, these experiments highlight the crucial importance of the TbTrl1 for tRNA(Tyr) maturation and viability, while revealing tRNA splicing as its only essential function.

Regulation of axon regeneration by the RNA repair and splicing pathway

Mechanisms governing a neuron’s regenerative ability are important but not well understood. We identified Rtca, RNA 3′-terminal phosphate cyclase, as an inhibitor for axon regeneration. Removal of dRtca cell-autonomously enhanced axon regrowth in the Drosophila central nervous system, whereas its overexpression reduced axon regeneration in the periphery. Rtca along with the RNA ligase Rtcb and its catalyst Archease operate in the RNA repair/splicing pathway important for stress induced mRNA splicing, including that of Xbp1, a cellular stress sensor. dRtca and dArchease had opposing effects on Xbp1 splicing, and deficiency of dArchease or Xbp1 impeded axon regeneration in Drosophila. Moreover, overexpressing mammalian Rtca in cultured rodent neurons reduced axonal complexity in vitro, whereas reducing its function promoted retinal ganglion cell axon regeneration after optic nerve crush in mice. Our study thus links axon regeneration to cellular stress and RNA metabolism, revealing new potential therapeutic targets for treating nervous system trauma.

Characterization of a novel eukaryal nick-sealing RNA ligase from Naegleria gruberi

The proteome of the amoebo-flagellate protozoan Naegleria gruberi is rich in candidate RNA repair enzymes, including 15 putative RNA ligases, one of which, NgrRnl, is a eukaryal homolog of Deinococcus radiodurans RNA ligase, DraRnl. Here we report that purified recombinant NgrRnl seals nicked 3'-OH/5'-PO4 duplexes in which the 3'-OH strand is RNA. It does so via the "classic" ligase pathway, entailing reaction with ATP to form a covalent NgrRnl-AMP intermediate, transfer of AMP to the nick 5'-PO4, and attack of the RNA 3'-OH on the adenylylated nick to form a 3'-5' phosphodiester. Unlike members of the four known families of ATP-dependent RNA ligases, NgrRnl lacks a carboxy-terminal appendage to its nucleotidyltransferase domain. Instead, it contains a defining amino-terminal domain that we show is important for 3'-OH/5'-PO4 nick-sealing and ligase adenylylation, but dispensable for phosphodiester synthesis at a preadenylylated nick. We propose that NgrRnl, DraRnl, and their homologs from diverse bacteria, viruses, and unicellular eukarya comprise a new "Rnl5 family" of nick-sealing ligases with a signature domain organization.

Structure and mechanism of E. coli RNA 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase

2H (two-histidine) phosphoesterase enzymes are distributed widely in all domains of life and are implicated in diverse RNA and nucleotide transactions, including the transesterification and hydrolysis of cyclic phosphates. Here we report a biochemical and structural characterization of the Escherichia coli 2H protein YapD YadP [corrected], which was identified originally as a reversible transesterifying "nuclease/ligase" at RNA 2',5'-phosphodiesters. We find that YapD YadP [corrected] is an "end healing" cyclic phosphodiesterase (CPDase) enzyme that hydrolyzes an HORNA>p substrate with a 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiester to a HORNAp product with a 2'-phosphomonoester terminus, without concomitant end joining. Thus we rename this enzyme ThpR (two-histidine 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase acting on RNA). The 2.0 Å crystal structure of ThpR in a product complex with 2'-AMP highlights the roles of extended histidine-containing motifs (43)HxTxxF(48) and (125)HxTxxR(130) in the CPDase reaction. His43-Nε makes a hydrogen bond with the ribose O3' leaving group, thereby implicating His43 as a general acid catalyst. His125-Nε coordinates the O1P oxygen of the AMP 2'-phosphate (inferred from geometry to derive from the attacking water nucleophile), pointing to His125 as a general base catalyst. Arg130 makes bidentate contact with the AMP 2'-phosphate, suggesting a role in transition-state stabilization. Consistent with these inferences, changing His43, His125, or Arg130 to alanine effaced the CPDase activity of ThpR. Phe48 makes a π-π stack on the adenine nucleobase. Mutating Phe28 to alanine slowed the CPDase by an order of magnitude. The tertiary structure and extended active site motifs of ThpR are conserved in a subfamily of bacterial and archaeal 2H enzymes.

Distinctive kinetics and substrate specificities of plant and fungal tRNA ligases

Plant and fungal tRNA ligases are trifunctional enzymes that repair RNA breaks with 2',3'-cyclic-PO4 and 5'-OH ends. They are composed of cyclic phosphodiesterase (CPDase) and polynucleotide kinase domains that heal the broken ends to generate the 3'-OH, 2'-PO4, and 5'-PO4 required for sealing by a ligase domain. Here, we use short HORNA>p substrates to determine, in a one-pot assay format under single-turnover conditions, the order and rates of the CPDase, kinase and ligase steps. The observed reaction sequence for the plant tRNA ligase AtRNL, independent of RNA length, is that the CPDase engages first, converting HORNA>p to HORNA2'p, which is then phosphorylated to pRNA2'p by the kinase. Whereas the rates of the AtRNL CPDase and kinase reactions are insensitive to RNA length, the rate of the ligase reaction is slowed by a factor of 16 in the transition from 10-mer RNA to 8-mer and further by eightfold in the transition from 8-mer RNA to 6-mer. We report that a single ribonucleoside-2',3'-cyclic-PO4 moiety enables AtRNL to efficiently splice an otherwise all-DNA strand. Our characterization of a fungal tRNA ligase (KlaTrl1) highlights important functional distinctions vis à vis the plant homolog. We find that (1) the KlaTrl1 kinase is 300-fold faster than the AtRNL kinase; and (2) the KlaTrl1 kinase is highly specific for GTP or dGTP as the phosphate donor. Our findings recommend tRNA ligase as a tool to map ribonucleotides embedded in DNA and as a target for antifungal drug discovery.

Effects of 3'-OH and 5'-PO4 base mispairs and damaged base lesions on the fidelity of nick sealing by Deinococcus radiodurans RNA ligase

Deinococcus radiodurans RNA ligase (DraRnl) is the founding member of a family of end-joining enzymes encoded by diverse microbes and viruses. DraRnl ligates 3'-OH, 5'-PO4 nicks in double-stranded nucleic acids in which the nick 3'-OH end is RNA. Here we gauge the effects of 3'-OH and 5'-PO4 base mispairs and damaged base lesions on the rate of nick sealing. DraRnl is indifferent to the identity of the 3'-OH nucleobase, provided that it is correctly paired. With 3'-OH mispairs, the DraRnl sealing rate varies widely, with G-T and A-C mispairs being the best substrates and G-G, G-A, and A-A mispairs being the worst. DraRnl accepts 3' A-8-oxoguanine (oxoG) to be correctly paired, while it discriminates against U-oxoG and G-oxoG mispairs. DraRnl displays high activity and low fidelity in sealing 3'-OH ends opposite an 8-oxoadenine lesion. It prefers 3'-OH adenosine when sealing opposite an abasic template site. With 5'-PO4 mispairs, DraRnl seals a 5' T-G mispair as well as it does a 5' C-G pair; in most other respects, the ligation fidelity at 5' mispairs is similar to that at 3' mispairs. DraRnl accepts a 5' A-oxoG end to be correctly paired, yet it is more tolerant of 5' T-oxoG and 5' G-oxoG mispairs than the equivalent configurations on the 3' side of the nick. At 5' nucleobase-abasic site nicks, DraRnl prefers to ligate when the nucleobase is a purine. The biochemical properties of DraRnl are compatible with its participation in the templated repair of RNA damage or in the sealing of filled DNA gaps that have a 3' ribopatch.

2'-Phosphate cyclase activity of RtcA: a potential rationale for the operon organization of RtcA with an RNA repair ligase RtcB in Escherichia coli and other bacterial taxa

RNA terminal phosphate cyclase catalyzes the ATP-dependent conversion of a 3'-phosphate RNA end to a 2',3'-cyclic phosphate via covalent enzyme-(histidinyl-Nε)-AMP and RNA(3')pp(5')A intermediates. Here, we report that Escherichia coli RtcA (and its human homolog Rtc1) are capable of cyclizing a 2'-phosphate RNA end in high yield. The rate of 2'-phosphate cyclization by RtcA is five orders of magnitude slower than 3'-phosphate cyclization, notwithstanding that RtcA binds with similar affinity to RNA3'p and RNA2'p substrates. These findings expand the functional repertoire of RNA cyclase and suggest that phosphate geometry during adenylate transfer to RNA is a major factor in the kinetics of cyclization. RtcA is coregulated in an operon with an RNA ligase, RtcB, that splices RNA 5'-OH ends to either 3'-phosphate or 2',3'-cyclic phosphate ends. Our results suggest that RtcA might serve an end healing function in an RNA repair pathway, by converting RNA 2'-phosphates, which cannot be spliced by RtcB, to 2',3'-cyclic phosphates that can be sealed. The rtcBA operon is controlled by the σ(54) coactivator RtcR encoded by an adjacent gene. This operon arrangement is conserved in diverse bacterial taxa, many of which have also incorporated the RNA-binding protein Ro (which is implicated in RNA quality control under stress conditions) as a coregulated component of the operon.

Reversible and rapid transfer-RNA deactivation as a mechanism of translational repression in stress

Stress-induced changes of gene expression are crucial for survival of eukaryotic cells. Regulation at the level of translation provides the necessary plasticity for immediate changes of cellular activities and protein levels. In this study, we demonstrate that exposure to oxidative stress results in a quick repression of translation by deactivation of the aminoacyl-ends of all transfer-RNA (tRNA). An oxidative-stress activated nuclease, angiogenin, cleaves first within the conserved single-stranded 3'-CCA termini of all tRNAs, thereby blocking their use in translation. This CCA deactivation is reversible and quickly repairable by the CCA-adding enzyme [ATP(CTP):tRNA nucleotidyltransferase]. Through this mechanism the eukaryotic cell dynamically represses and reactivates translation at low metabolic costs.

Structural and biochemical analysis of the phosphate donor specificity of the polynucleotide kinase component of the bacterial pnkp•hen1 RNA repair system

Clostridium thermocellum Pnkp is the end-healing and end-sealing subunit of a bacterial RNA repair system. CthPnkp is composed of three catalytic modules: an N-terminal 5'-OH polynucleotide kinase, a central 2',3' phosphatase, and a C-terminal ligase. The crystal structure of the kinase domain bound to ATP•Mg(2+) revealed a rich network of ionic and hydrogen-bonding contacts to the α, β, and γ phosphates. By contrast, there are no enzymic contacts to the ribose and none with the adenine base other than a π-cation interaction with Arg116. Here we report that the enzyme uses ATP, GTP, CTP, UTP, or dATP as a phosphate donor for the 5'-OH kinase reaction. The enzyme also catalyzes the reverse reaction, in which a polynucleotide 5'-PO4 group is transferred to ADP, GDP, CDP, UDP, or dADP to form the corresponding NTP. We report new crystal structures of the kinase in complexes with GTP, CTP, UTP, and dATP in which the respective nucleobases are stacked on Arg116 but make no other enzymic contacts. Mutating Arg116 to alanine elicits a 10-fold increase in Km for ATP but has little effect on kcat. These findings illuminate the basis for nonspecific donor nucleotide utilization by a P-loop phosphotransferase.