D-Galactosamine Intoxication in Experimental Animals: Is it Only an Experimental Model of Acute Liver Failure?

Recent developments in in vitro and in vivo models for improved translation of preclinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics data

Improved pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) prediction in the early stages of drug development is essential to inform lead optimization strategies and reduce attrition rates. Recently, there have been significant advancements in the development of new in vitro and in vivo strategies to better characterize pharmacokinetic properties and efficacy of drug leads. Herein, we review advances in experimental and mathematical models for clearance predictions, advancements in developing novel tools to capture slowly metabolized drugs, in vivo model developments to capture human etiology for supporting drug development, limitations and gaps in these efforts, and a perspective on the future in the field.

Drug-induced-acute liver failure: A critical appraisal of the thioacetamide model for the study of hepatic encephalopathy

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) following acute and chronic liver failure is defined as a complex of neuropsychiatric abnormalities, such as discrete personal changes, sleep disorder, forgetfulness, confusion, and decreasing the level of consciousness to coma. The use and design of suitable animal models that represent clinical features and pathological changes of HE are valuable to map the molecular mechanisms that result in HE. Among different types of animal models, thioacetamide (TAA) has been used extensively for the induction of acute liver injury and HE. This agent is not directly hepatotoxic but its metabolites induce liver injury through the induction of oxidative stress and produce systemic inflammation similar to that seen in acute HE patients. In this short review article, we shortly review the most important pathological findings in animal models of acute HE following the administration of TAA.

A mixture of mulberry and silk amino acids protected against D-galactosamine induced acute liver damage by attenuating oxidative stress and inflammation in HepG2 cells and rats

The liver is an important organ for the removal of toxins and utilization of nutrients. The present study then investigated whether a mixture of mulberry water extracts and silk amino acids protected against acute liver damage in rats induced by intraperitoneal injection of D-galactosamine and the action mechanism. D-galactosamine injection is widely used to develop experimental animal models of acute hepatic disease. In the present study, male Sprague-Dawley rats received intraperitoneal injection of D-galactosamine followed by 200 and 600 mg/kg body weight (BW) of mulberry extracts and silk amino acids (1:3, w/w; MS1:3-L and MS1:3-H), the same amounts of MS with different ratios (1:5, w/w; MS1:5-L and MS1:5-H), and 600 mg/kg bw cellulose (control) for 1 week. The normal-control group received an injection of saline instead of D-galactosamine with the same diet as the control group. D-galactosamine injection (control rats) increased serum ALT, AST and γ-GPT levels, indicating the induction of acute liver damage. The control rats also exhibited reduced glycogen depositions, which contributed to increasing fat synthesis from glucose and elevated serum triglyceride levels. Oxidative stress and inflammation in the liver of the control increased in response to the decreasing antioxidant activity and mRNA expression and increasing TNF-α expression, respectively. Both MS1:3 and MS1:5 reduced serum ALT, AST and γ-GPT levels to ameliorate liver damage. MS1:3 reduced oxidative stress by increasing the activity and expression of antioxidant enzymes, whereas MS1:5 decreased the expression TNF-α in the liver. MS1:3 and MS1:5 improved the necrosis of hepatocytes in H&E staining, which was associated with increased glycogen deposition in PAS staining. MS1:5 had better effects on glycogen accumulation. In conclusion, MS1:3 and MS1:5 can be used as therapeutic agents for acute liver damage.

Taurine Enhances the Protective Actions of Fish Oil Against D-Galactosamine-Induced Metabolic Changes and Hepatic Lipid Accumulation and Injury in the Rat

This study has evaluated the effects of a supplementation with taurine (TAU) on the actions of fish oil (FO) against the hypoglycemia, hypoproteinemia, and hepatic accumulation of lipids and liver damage caused by D-galactosamine (GAL) in the rat. To this end, male Sprague-Dawley rats (200-225 g), in groups of 6, were orally treated with physiological saline (2.5 mL, control group), FO (60 mg/kg), TAU (2.4 mmol/kg) or FO-TAU for three consecutive days and before a single oral dose of GAL (400 mg/kg) given on day 3. In parallel, rats receiving only GAL on day 3 or N-acetylcysteine (NAC, 2.4 mmol/kg) for 3 days before GAL served as controls. On day 4 blood samples were collected by cardiac puncture and used to either measure glucose (GLC) or to obtain plasma fractions. Immediately thereafter, the livers were excised, made into a homogenate in phosphate buffered saline pH 7.4, and centrifuged to obtain clear supernatant. Plasma samples were assayed for their total protein (TP), triglycerides (TG), cholesterol (CHOL), phospholipids (PLP), free fatty acids (FFA) and total bilirubin (TB) and direct bilirubin (DB) contents, and for the activities of alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). The liver homogenates were used to measure TG, CHOL, PLP and total lipids (TL) contents. Without exceptions, GAL was found to markedly affect (p < 0.001) all of the experimental parameters examined, with increases occurring in all instances except for the values of the plasma GLC, TP and PLP which were decreased. A pretreatment with either FO or TAU led to significant attenuation of the effects of GAL and which, in most cases, were of similar magnitude. On the other hand, a combined pretreatment with FO plus TAU usually resulted in a greater protection than with either agent alone (p ≤ 0.05). NAC, serving as a reference treatment, was, in most instances, equipotent with FO alone and. in addition, was the only agent that significantly attenuated the increases in both liver weight and liver weight to body weight ratio caused by GAL.

Protective Effects of the Third Generation Vasodilatory Βeta - Blocker Nebivolol against D-Galactosamine - Induced Hepatorenal Syndrome in Rats

BACKGROUND:

Renal dysfunction is very common in patients with advanced liver cirrhosis and portal hypertension. The development of renal failure in the absence of clinical, anatomical or pathological causes renal of failure is termed hepatorenal syndrome (HRS).

AIM:

The present study was constructed to investigate the possible protective effects of nebivolol (Nebi) against D-galactosamine (Gal)-induced HRS in rats.

MATERIAL AND METHODS:

Rats were treated with Nebi for ten successive days. On the 8th day of the experiment, they received a single dose of Gal. Serum levels of Cr, BUN, Na+ and K+ as well as AST, ALT, total bilirubin (TB), NH3 and endothelin-1 (ET-1) were determined following Gal administration. Moreover, renal and liver contents of MDA, GSH, F2-isoprostanes (F2-IPs), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), total nitric oxide (NO), in addition to activities of caspase-3 (Cas-3), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), inducible and endothelial NO synthase (iNOS and eNOS) enzymes were also assessed. Finally, histopathological examination was performed.

RESULTS:

Nebi attenuated Gal-induced renal and hepatic dysfunction. It also decreased the Gal-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory recruitment.

CONCLUSION:

Results demonstrated both nephroprotective and hepatoprotective effects of Nebi against HRS and suggested a role of its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and NO-releasing properties.

Prevention and Therapeutic Effects and Mechanisms of Tanshinone IIA Sodium Sulfonate on Acute Liver Injury Mice Model

Tanshinone IIA sodium sulfonate (TSS) is a water-soluble derivative of tanshinone IIA, which is the main pharmacologically active component of Salvia miltiorrhiza. This study aimed to verify the preventive and therapeutic effects of TSS and its combined therapeutic effects with magnesium isoglycyrrhizinate (MI) in D-galactosamine- (D-Gal-) induced acute liver injury (ALI) in mice. The potential regulatory mechanisms of TSS on ALI were also examined. Our results may provide a basis for the development of novel therapeutics for ALI.