The Nephroprotective Effect of MS-275 on Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-Induced Acute Kidney Injury by Inhibiting Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)-Oxidative Stress and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Epigenetic modifications of inflammation in spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a central nervous system injury that leads to neurological dysfunction or paralysis, which seriously affects patients' quality of life and causes a heavy social and economic burden. The pathological mechanism of SCI has not been fully revealed, resulting in unsatisfactory clinical treatment. Therefore, more research is urgently needed to reveal its precise pathological mechanism. Numerous studies have shown that inflammation is closely related to various pathological processes in SCI. Inflammatory response is an important pathological process leading to secondary injury, and sustained inflammatory response can exacerbate the injury and hinder the recovery of neurological function after injury. Epigenetic modification is considered to be an important regulatory mechanism in the pathological process of many diseases. Epigenetic modification mainly affects the function and characteristics of genes through the reversibility of mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone modification, and regulation of non-coding RNA, thus having a significant impact on the pathological process of diseases and the survival state of the body. Recently, the role of epigenetic modification in the inflammatory response of SCI has gradually entered the field of view of researchers, and epigenetic modification may be a potential means to treat SCI. In this paper, we review the effects and mechanisms of different types of epigenetic modifications (including histone modifications, DNA methylation, and non-coding RNAs) on post-SCI inflammation and their potential therapeutic effects on inflammation to improve our understanding of the secondary SCI stage. This review aims to help identify new markers, signaling pathways and targeted drugs, and provide theoretical basis and new strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of SCI.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Mediated Cell Death in Renal Fibrosis

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is indispensable for maintaining normal life activities. Dysregulation of the ER function results in the accumulation of harmful proteins and lipids and the disruption of intracellular signaling pathways, leading to cellular dysfunction and eventual death. Protein misfolding within the ER disrupts its delicate balance, resulting in the accumulation of misfolded or unfolded proteins, a condition known as endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS). Renal fibrosis, characterized by the aberrant proliferation of fibrotic tissue in the renal interstitium, stands as a grave consequence of numerous kidney disorders, precipitating a gradual decline in renal function. Renal fibrosis is a serious complication of many kidney conditions and is characterized by the overgrowth of fibrotic tissue in the glomerular and tubular interstitium, leading to the progressive failure of renal function. Studies have shown that, during the onset and progression of kidney disease, ERS causes various problems in the kidneys, a process that can lead to kidney fibrosis. This article elucidates the underlying intracellular signaling pathways modulated by ERS, delineating its role in triggering diverse forms of cell death. Additionally, it comprehensively explores a spectrum of potential pharmacological agents and molecular interventions aimed at mitigating ERS, thereby charting novel research avenues and therapeutic advancements in the management of renal fibrosis.

ALCAM Deficiency Alleviates LPS-Induced Acute Lung Injury by Inhibiting Inflammatory Response

We investigated the effects and underlying mechanisms of activated leukocyte adhesion molecule (ALCAM) on acute lung injury (ALI) by using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI animal model and LPS-induced inflammation in vitro. In LPS-stimulated mice, ALCAM deficiency relieved lung injury, which manifested as reduced pathological changes in the lung tissue, reduced pulmonary edema, and reduced vascular permeability. Furthermore, we demonstrated that ALCAM deficiency reduced the infiltration of inflammatory cells, including neutrophil, eosinophil, and macrophages; the release of inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and COX2; and reduced the protein level of TLR4/NF-κB pathway (TLR4, MyD88, p-IkBɑ, and p-NF-κB p65). We also demonstrated that ALCAM deficiency reduced the expression of oxidative stress-related proteins (Nrf-2, HO-1, and NQO-1) and endoplasmic reticulum stress-related proteins (CHOP, GRP78, ATF-6, and p-eIF2ɑ). In addition, in LPS-induced inflammation in vitro, ALCAM overexpression promoted inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and ER stress. We established that ALCAM deficiency can suppress the ALI process by reducing inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress.

Protective effect of HDACIs in improves survival and organ injury after CLP-induced sepsis

Introduction

The effects of isoform-specific histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs) and the non-selective HDACI on sepsis have been profoundly reported. However, the best HDAC classes have not been fully evaluated. Therefore, this study aimed to determine which HDACIs are responsible for survival and beneficial for organ injury.

Methods

Experiment I, SD rats were subjected to cecal ligation and puncture and randomly assigned to the no treatment, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) only, MS-275, LMK-235, tubastatinA (TubA), trichostatin-A (TSA), and sirtinol groups (n = 5). Survival was monitored for 48 h. Experiment II, the animals were monitored for 12 h, then, blood and tissues sample were collected. Interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) expressions were evaluated using ELISA. Liver, heart and lung tissues were analysed via hematoxylin and eosin staining. Liver and heart tissue lysates were analysed for acetylated histones H3, H4, a-tubulin and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α using western blotting. Splenocytes were examined via flow cytometry to analyse the immune cell population.

Results

MS-275, TubA and TSA treatments significantly prolonged survival. MS-275, LMK-235, TubA and TSA significantly reduced the histopathological scores and AST, ALT, CK, LDH, IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α levels, significantly increased acetylated of NF-κB and changed the immune cell proportion.

Conclusion

Our results indicated that HDACI classes I and IIb and non-selective HDACI can significantly prolong survival. Moreover, non-selective and isoform-specific class I and IIa/IIb HDACIs can attenuate inflammation and organ injury.

Saroglitazar, a dual PPAR-α/γ agonist, alleviates LPS-induced hepatic and renal injury in rats

BACKGROUND

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), an endotoxin within gram-negative bacteria, is associated with systemic acute inflammatory response after invading living tissues and results in sepsis. The liver and kidney are both major target organs in sepsis. Septic acute hepatic-renal injury is a serious clinical condition with high risk of morbidity and mortality. Nevertheless, effective treatment is still lacking.

AIM

This study highlights saroglitazar (SAR), a dual PPAR-α/γ agonist, as a proposed prophylactic drug against LPS-induced hepatic-renal injury.

MAIN METHODS

Rats were pretreated with SAR (2 and 4 mg/kg/day) for 15 days, while sepsis was induced by LPS injection (10 mg/kg) on day 15 one hour following SAR oral administration.

KEY FINDINGS

SAR pretreatment could successfully mitigate LPS-induced hepatic-renal injury, evidenced by enhancement of renal and hepatic functions and a decrease of tissue pathological injury. Meanwhile, SAR alleviated LPS-induced oxidative stress; it reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and ameliorated decreased levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH). LPS-induced elevations in hepatic and renal nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), phosphorylated inhibitor of kappa B alpha (p-IκBα), interferon-beta (IFN-β), and hepatic high mobility group box-1 (HMGB-1) contents were significantly attenuated in SAR-treated groups. SAR showed an advantageous impact against LPS-induced activation of non-canonical inflammasome and pyroptosis via a significant reduction in cysteinyl aspartate-specific proteinase-11 (Caspase-11) and gasdermin D (GSDMD) expressions. Moreover, Nucleotide-Binding Oligomerization Domain (NOD)-Like Receptor Protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation with concomitant expression and activation of caspase-1 and release of interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) were considerably diminished following SAR pretreatment.

SIGNIFICANCE

SAR could be considered a prophylactic anti-inflammatory antioxidant drug against LPS-induced liver and kidney injury.

Histone Deacetylases Cooperate with NF-κB to Support the Immediate Migratory Response after Zebrafish Pronephros Injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is commonly associated with severe human diseases, and often worsens the outcome in hospitalized patients. The mammalian kidney has the ability to recover spontaneously from AKI; however, little progress has been made in the development of supportive treatments. Increasing evidence suggest that histone deacetylases (HDAC) and NF-κB promote the pathogenesis of AKI, and inhibition of Hdac activity has a protective effect in murine models of AKI. However, the role of HDAC at the early stages of recovery is unknown. We used the zebrafish pronephros model to study the role of epigenetic modifiers in the immediate repair response after injury to the tubular epithelium. Using specific inhibitors, we found that the histone deacetylase Hdac2, Hdac6, and Hdac8 activities are required for the repair via collective cell migration. We found that hdac6, hdac8, and nfkbiaa expression levels were upregulated in the repairing epithelial cells shortly after injury. Depletion of hdac6, hdac8, or nfkbiaa with morpholino oligonucleotides impaired the repair process, whereas the combined depletion of all three genes synergistically suppressed the recovery process. Furthermore, time-lapse video microscopy revealed that the lamellipodia and filopodia formation in the flanking cells was strongly reduced in hdac6-depleted embryos. Our findings suggest that Hdac activity and NF-κB are synergistically required for the immediate repair response in the zebrafish pronephros model of AKI, and the timing of HDAC inhibition might be important in developing supportive protocols in the human disease.

The diagnostic value of endoplasmic reticulum stress-related specific proteins GRP78 and CHOP in patients with sepsis: a diagnostic cohort study

Background

Sepsis is a life-threatening disease with high mortality. Early diagnosis is critical as early treatment improves outcomes. The protein levels of glucose regulated protein 78 (GRP78) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), markers of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) activation, were reported increasing rapidly and continuously in the serum of patients with sepsis. Therefore, they might serve as a potential biomarker for sepsis diagnosis. This study aimed to analyze the role of GRP78 and CHOP in the diagnosis of patients with sepsis.

Methods

This study enrolled a total of 92 infected patients with or without sepsis who were admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) from February 1, 2018 to September 30, 2018. According to 2016 SCCM/ESICM Sepsis 3.0 diagnostic criteria, patients with sepsis were allocated into group I (sepsis infected group) and patients without sepsis were allocated into group II (non-sepsis infected group). Serum samples were collected on days 1, 2, 3, and 7 after admission to ICU, and the concentrations of GRP78 and CHOP in the serum were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The diagnostic ability of GRP78, CHOP, and other traditional inflammatory markers was assessed with receiver operating characteristic (ROC)/area under the ROC curves (AUC) analysis. Patients were shortly follow-up for the 28-day mortality.

Results

Serum GRP78 and CHOP levels in group I patients were higher than that in group II patients (P=0.021, P=0.00, respectively). When GRP78 was used to diagnose sepsis, the maximum area under the ROC curve (AUC) was 0.771 (95% CI: 0.662-0.880) and the optimal threshold was 157.29 ng/L (sensitivity, 75.0%; specificity, 73.1%) on day 2. When CHOP was used for the diagnosis of sepsis, the maximum AUC was 0.813(95% CI: 0.721-0.906) and the optimal threshold was 4.915 ng/L (sensitivity, 57.7%; specificity, 96.2%) on day 2.

Conclusions

Compared with traditional inflammatory markers, ERS-related specific proteins GRP78 and CHOP have better sensitivity and specificity in the diagnosis of sepsis, which is helpful for clinicians in the diagnosis of sepsis.

Therapies Targeting Epigenetic Alterations in Acute Kidney Injury-to-Chronic Kidney Disease Transition

Acute kidney injury (AKI) was previously thought to be a merely transient event; however, recent epidemiological evidence supports the existence of a causal relationship between AKI episodes and subsequent progression to chronic kidney disease (CKD). Although the pathophysiology of this AKI-to-CKD transition is not fully understood, it is mediated by the interplay among multiple components of the kidney including tubular epithelial cells, endothelial cells, pericytes, inflammatory cells, and myofibroblasts. Epigenetic alterations including histone modification, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and chromatin conformational changes, are also expected to be largely involved in the pathophysiology as a “memory” of the initial injury that can persist and predispose to chronic progression of fibrosis. Each epigenetic modification has a great potential as a therapeutic target of AKI-to-CKD transition; timely and target-specific epigenetic interventions to the various temporal stages of AKI-to-CKD transition will be the key to future therapeutic applications in clinical practice. This review elaborates on the latest knowledge of each mechanism and the currently available therapeutic agents that target epigenetic modification in the context of AKI-to-CKD transition. Further studies will elucidate more detailed mechanisms and novel therapeutic targets of AKI-to-CKD transition.

Entinostat Improves Motor Function and Neuronal Damage Via Downregulating NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation After Spinal Cord Injury

Background: Spinal cord injury (SCI), a major public health problem, has no effective treatment. A large number of studies have confirmed that histone deacetylases (HDACs) are involved in the physiologic processes that occur following SCI. We tried to uncover the potential neuroprotective role of entinostat (a class I HDAC inhibitor) in SCI.

Methods: We conducted a study on a preclinical mouse model of SCI and OGD-induced neuronal damage to present the role of entinostat by the analysis of motor function, histopathologic damage, local NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and neuronal damage.

Results: The results showed that entinostat suppressed HDAC activation (including HDAC1 and HDAC3 expression), improved the grip strength and BMS score, spinal edema, cell death, and local NLRP3 inflammasome activation in the spinal cord following SCI. Furthermore, entinostat significantly increased OGD-inhibited neuronal activity and decreased PI-positive cells, HDAC activation, caspase-1 activation, IL-1β and IL-18 levels, and NLRP3 expression.

Conclusion: In summary, we first documented that entinostat improved the motor function, histopathologic damage, and local inflammatory response and NLRP3 inflammasome activation in the spinal cord following SCI and also presented the neuroprotective role of OGD-induced neuronal damage via the NLRP3 inflammasome. Thus, our study has the potential to reveal the interaction between the HDAC and NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathologic process as well as SCI and further promote the clinical indications of HDACi entinostat and clinical treatment for the inflammatory response after SCI.

Epigenetic Modification Drives Acute Kidney Injury-to-Chronic Kidney Disease Progression

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common clinical critical disease. Due to its high morbidity, increasing risk of complications, high mortality rate, and high medical costs, it has become a global concern for human health problems. Initially, researchers believed that kidneys have a strong ability to regenerate and repair, but studies over the past 20 years have found that kidneys damaged by AKI are often incomplete or even unable to repair. Even when serum creatinine returns to baseline levels, renal structural damage persists for a long time, leading to the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD). The mechanism of AKI-to-CKD transition has not been fully elucidated. As an important regulator of gene expression, epigenetic modifications, such as histone modification, DNA methylation, and noncoding RNAs, may play an important role in this process. Alterations in epigenetic modification are induced by hypoxia, thus promoting the expression of inflammatory factor-related genes and collagen secretion. This review elaborated the role of epigenetic modifications in AKI-to-CKD progression, the diagnostic value of epigenetic modifications biomarkers in AKI chronic outcome, and the potential role of targeting epigenetic modifications in the prevention and treatment of AKI to CKD, in order to provide ideas for the subsequent establishment of targeted therapeutic strategies to prevent the progression of renal tubular-interstitial fibrosis.

CO-Releasing Molecule-2 Prevents Acute Kidney Injury through Suppression of ROS-Fyn-ER Stress Signaling in Mouse Model

Acute kidney injury (AKI) most commonly appears in critically ill patients in hospitals. AKI is characterized as a quick deterioration of kidney function and has recently been identified to be tightly interlinked with chronic kidney diseases. The emerging major mediators of AKI include oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Carbon monoxide (CO) attenuates oxidative stress and ER stress in various cells, while Fyn, a member of the Src kinase family, is activated by oxidative stress and contributes to ER stress in skeletal muscle. Considering these, the objective of the current research was to determine (i) the involvement of Fyn in ER stress-mediated AKI and (ii) the effect of CO-releasing molecule-2 (CORM2) on reactive oxygen species- (ROS-) Fyn-ER stress-mediated AKI. Pretreatment with CORM2 (30 mg/kg) efficiently inhibited LPS (30 mg/kg)-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and cellular apoptosis during AKI in C57BL/6J mice. Also, CORM2 efficiently suppressed the activation of Fyn and ER stress in AKI mice. Consistently, pretreatment with CORM2 inhibited oxidative stress, Fyn activation, ER stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in LPS- or H₂O₂-stimulated proximal epithelial tubular cells. Fyn inhibition using siRNA or an inhibitor (PP2) significantly attenuated ER stress responses in the cells. These data suggest that CORM2 may become a potential treatment option against ROS-Fyn-ER stress-mediated AKI.

The Role and Mechanism of Histone Deacetylases in Acute Kidney Injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common clinical complication with an incidence of up to 8-18% in hospitalized patients. AKI is also a complication of COVID-19 patients and is associated with an increased risk of death. In recent years, numerous studies have suggested that epigenetic regulation is critically involved in the pathophysiological process and prognosis of AKI. Histone acetylation, one of the epigenetic regulations, is negatively regulated by histone deacetylases (HDACs). Increasing evidence indicates that HDACs play an important role in the pathophysiological development of AKI by regulation of apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, fibrosis, cell survival, autophagy, ATP production, and mitochondrial biogenesis (MB). In this review, we summarize and discuss the role and mechanism of HDACs in the pathogenesis of AKI.

Histone Deacetylases in Kidney Physiology and Acute Kidney Injury

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are part of the epigenetic machinery that regulates transcriptional processes. The current paradigm is that HDACs silence gene expression via regulation of histone protein lysine deacetylation, or by forming corepressor complexes with transcription factors. However, HDACs are more than just nuclear proteins, and they can interact and deacetylate a growing number of nonhistone proteins to regulate cellular function. Cancer-field studies have shown that deranged HDAC activity results in uncontrolled proliferation, inflammation, and fibrosis; all pathologies that also may occur in kidney disease. Over the past decade, studies have emerged suggesting that HDAC inhibitors may prevent and potentially treat various models of acute kidney injury. This review focuses on the physiology of kidney HDACs and highlights the recent advances using HDAC inhibitors to potentially treat kidney disease patients.

Vitamin D3 mitigates lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative stress, tight junction damage and intestinal inflammatory response in yellow catfish, Pelteobagrus fulvidraco

The present study explored the possible mitigative effects of vitamin D₃ (VD₃) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced intestinal oxidative stress, inflammatory response and tight junction damage in yellow catfish, Pelteobagrus fulvidraco. Herein, four experimental groups were established by injecting yellow catfish with NaCl, LPS, VD₃ or LPS plus VD₃. The results showed that LPS induced oxidative stress and that exogenous VD₃ mitigated the adverse effects of LPS. Additionally, LPS suppressed the activity of antioxidant enzymes (Cat, Sod and Gr) and upregulated the mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines (Tnf-α, Il-1β, Il-8). Furthermore, the mRNA expression of "fencing" tight junctions (Claudin-1, Claudin-5, Occludin, Zo-1) was downregulated, while that of "pore-forming" tight junctions (Claudin-2, Claudin-12) was upregulated, however no effect on apoptosis genes was observed (p53, Bax, Caspase-3 and Caspase-9). These LPS-induced effects were significantly reversed by pretreatment with VD₃. Taken together, this study suggests that exogenous VD₃ substantially alleviates LPS-induced intestinal inflammation by upregulating antioxidant activity, suppressing inflammation and promoting fencing tight junctions in the intestine.

Selective Targeting of Epigenetic Readers and Histone Deacetylases in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) and bromodomain-containing proteins (BCPs) play a key role in chromatin remodeling. Based on their ability to regulate inducible gene expression in the context of inflammation and cancer, HDACs and BCPs have been the focus of drug discovery efforts, and numerous small-molecule inhibitors have been developed. However, dose-limiting toxicities of the first generation of inhibitors, which typically target multiple HDACs or BCPs, have limited translation to the clinic. Over the last decade, an increasing effort has been dedicated to designing class-, isoform-, or domain-specific HDAC or BCP inhibitors, as well as developing strategies for cell-specific targeted drug delivery. Selective inhibition of the epigenetic modulators is helping to elucidate the functions of individual epigenetic proteins and has the potential to yield better and safer therapeutic strategies. In accordance with this idea, several in vitro and in vivo studies have reported the ability of more selective HDAC/BCP inhibitors to recapitulate the beneficial effects of pan-inhibitors with less unwanted adverse events. In this review, we summarize the most recent advances with these strategies, discussing advantages and limitations of these approaches as well as some therapeutic perspectives, focusing on autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

LPS promotes the progression of sepsis by activation of lncRNA HULC/miR-204-5p/TRPM7 network in HUVECs

Sepsis is a systemic inflammatory response syndrome caused by infection. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has been reported to induce inflammatory responses, and long non-coding RNA highly up-regulated in liver cancer (HULC) expression was associated with the progression of sepsis. But the role and underlying mechanism of HULC in LPS-induced sepsis remain unclear. Cell viability and apoptosis were measured by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) and flow cytometry assays, respectively. The levels of apoptosis-related proteins, inflammatory cytokines and transient receptor potential melastatin7 (TRPM7) were detected by western blot. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were detected by dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) method using commercial kit. HULC, microRNA-204-5p (miR-204-5p) and TRPM7 expressions in serum of sepsis patients and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were examined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Dual-luciferase reporter and RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assays were used to confirm the interaction between HULC and miR-204-5p, miR-204-5p and TRPM7. LPS stimulation restrained cell viability and facilitated apoptosis, inflammatory injury and oxidative stress in HUVECs. HULC and TRPM7 were increased and accompanied with decreased miR-204-5p expression in serum of sepsis patients. A significant negative correlation between miR-204-5p and HULC or TRPM7 was observed, and there was a positive relationship between expressions of HULC and TRPM7. Importantly, LPS inhibited the cell viability and induced apoptosis, inflammatory injury and oxidative stress of HUVECs by up-regulating the expressions of HULC and TRPM7, and down-modulating miR-204-5p expression. Mechanically, HULC positively regulated TRPM7 expression by sponging miR-204-5p in HUVECs. LPS impaired cell viability, and promoted cell apoptosis, inflammatory response and oxidative stress in HUVECs by regulating HULC/miR-204-5p/TRPM7 axis.

Protective Effect of Mitochondria-Targeted Antioxidants against Inflammatory Response to Lipopolysaccharide Challenge: A Review

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the major component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, is the most abundant proinflammatory agent. Considerable evidence indicates that LPS challenge inescapably causes oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to cell and tissue damage. Increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) generation triggered by LPS is known to play a key role in the progression of the inflammatory response. mtROS at excessive levels impair electron transport chain functioning, reduce the mitochondrial membrane potential, and initiate lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage of mitochondrial proteins and mtDNA. Over the past 20 years, a large number of mitochondria-targeted antioxidants (mito-AOX) of different structures that can accumulate inside mitochondria and scavenge free radicals have been synthesized. Their protective role based on the prevention of oxidative stress and the restoration of mitochondrial function has been demonstrated in a variety of common diseases and pathological states. This paper reviews the current data on the beneficial application of different mito-AOX in animal endotoxemia models, in either in vivo or in vitro experiments. The results presented in our review demonstrate the promising potential of approaches based on mito-AOX in the development of new treatment strategies against Gram-negative infections and LPS per se.

Vitamin D3 and erythropoietin protect against renal ischemia-reperfusion injury via heat shock protein 70 and microRNA-21 expression

Kidney ischemia reperfusion (IR) contributes to the development of acute kidney injury. The hypoxic conditions in ischemic damage lead to oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death. We investigated the effects of vitamin D3 (Vit D) and erythropoietin (EPO) on microRNA-21(miR-21) expression in renal IR. Wistar rats were divided into five groups including the control, vehicle + IR, Vit D + IR, EPO + IR, and Vit D + EPO + IR groups. The animals were unilaterally nephrectomized and subjected to 45 min of renal pedicle occlusion followed by 24 h reperfusion. Vitamin D3 and EPO were administered prior to ischemia. After 24 h reperfusion, the kidney samples were collected for the detection of miR-21, heat shock protein 70 (hsp70) and caspase-3 expression levels. Kidney IR significantly increased the expression of miR-21, hsp70 and capase-3 and blood urea nitrogen (BUN)-Cr levels. Treatment with vitamin D3 and EPO significantly decreased the BUN-Cr levels and hsp70 and caspase-3 expression. Also, the co-administration of two drugs significantly increased miR-21 expression. It seems that vitamin D3 or EPO administration could protect the kidney against IR injury. However, vitamin D3 and EPO co-treatment was the most effective compared with the other treatment groups.

Physical Exercise Exacerbates Acute Kidney Injury Induced by LPS via Toll-Like Receptor 4

Introduction: Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a systemic response-triggering endotoxin, which has the kidney as one of its first targets, thus causing acute injuries to this organ. Physical exercise is capable of promoting physiological alterations and modulating inflammatory responses in the infectious process through multiple parameters, including the toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 pathway, which is the main LPS signaling in sepsis. Additionally, previous studies have shown that physical exercise can be both a protector factor and an aggravating factor for some kidney diseases. This study aims at analyzing whether physical exercise before the induction of LPS endotoxemia can protect kidneys from acute kidney injury.

Methods: C57BL/6J male mice, 12 weeks old, were distributed into four groups: (1) sedentary (control, N = 7); (2) sedentary + LPS (N = 7); (3) trained (N = 7); and (4) trained + LPS (N = 7). In the training groups, the animals exercised 5×/week in a treadmill, 60 min/day, for 4 weeks (60% of max. velocity). Sepsis was induced in the training group by the application of a single dose of LPS (5 mg/kg i.p.). Sedentary animals received LPS on the same day, and the non-LPS groups received a saline solution instead. All animals were euthanized 24 h after the administration of LPS or saline.

Results: The groups receiving LPS presented a significant increase in serum urea (p < 0.0001) and creatinine (p < 0.001) concentration and renal gene expression of inflammatory markers, such as tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6, as well as TLRs. In addition, LPS promoted a decrease in reduced glutathione. Compared to the sedentary + LPS group, trained + LPS showed overexpression of a gene related to kidney injury (NGAL, p < 0.01) and the protein levels of LPS receptor TLR-4 (p < 0.01). Trained + LPS animals showed an expansion of the tubulointerstitial space in the kidney (p < 0.05) and a decrease in the gene expression of hepatic AOAH (p < 0.01), an enzyme involved in LPS clearance.

Conclusion: In contrast to our hypothesis, training was unable to mitigate the renal inflammatory response caused by LPS. On the contrary, it seems to enhance injury by accentuating endotoxin-induced TLR-4 signaling. This effect could be partly due to the modulation of a hepatic enzyme that detoxifies LPS.

Quantitative Proteomic Analysis Reveals the Sites Related to Acetylation and Mechanism of ACY-1215 in Acute Liver Failure Mice

Background: ACY-1215 is a well-known selective histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) inhibitor, and it has been considered as a potential therapeutic drug in inflammatory diseases, including acute liver failure (ALF). However, little is known about the impact of ACY-1215 treatment on histone lysine acetylation and proteome in ALF. In this study, we aim to investigate whether ACY-1215 has inhibitory effects and mechanism on the necrosis of hepatocytes; moreover, the impact of ACY-1215 treatment on histone lysine acetylation still needs further elucidation.

Methods: Male C57/BL6 mice were divided into normal, model, and ACY-1215 groups. ACY-1215 (25 mg/kg) and same amounts of saline were injected intraperitoneally to the mice before the establishment of ALF model induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (100 µg/kg) combined with D-gal (400 mg/kg). All animals were sacrificed after 24 h. In this study, detection programs, including quantitative proteomic analysis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) micrographs, pathological staining, protein expression, the detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT) and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) measurement.

Results: The function of liver and the necrosis of hepatocytes in ALF mice were significantly normalized by ACY-1215 pretreatment. The quantitative proteomic analysis revealed that ACY-1215-restrained oxidative phosphorylation normalized the function respiratory electron-transport chain in the mitochondria. Moreover, pretreatment of ACY-1215 not only normalized the structure of mitochondria but also inhibited the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Conclusions: ACY-1215 was able to inhibit necrosis of hepatocytes in ALF mice through regulating the mitochondrial-mediated oxidative stress, and we identified the common sites related to acetylation level.

The Effect of Overexpression of the Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 1 (EZH1) Gene on Aristolochic Acid-Induced Injury in HK-2 Human Kidney Proximal Tubule Cells In Vitro

Background

Acute kidney injury (AKI) involves the renal tubular epithelium. The enhancer of zeste homolog 1 (EZH1) gene has a role in cell development and differentiation. This study aimed to investigate the effect of overexpression of the EZH1 gene on aristolochic acid-induced injury in HK-2 human kidney proximal tubule epithelial cells in vitro.

Material/Methods

The HK-2 cells were cultured and treated with aristolochic acid and the effects of aristolochic acid-injury were evaluated using a cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. Overexpression of EZH1 used gene plasmid transfection into HK-2 cells. The cell apoptosis rate and levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured using flow cytometry. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot were performed to determine the expressions of inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), apoptosis-related genes, and the downstream target genes of NF-κB signaling pathway, including NFKBIA, CXCL8, and cyclin D1.

Results

Aristolochic acid inhibited HK-2 cell viability, induced cell apoptosis, increased the levels of ROS and inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and activated the NF-κB pathway. Overexpression the EZH1 gene inhibited HK-2 cell apoptosis, reduced ROS levels, and down-regulated the expressions of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, Bax and Cyt C mRNA and protein, and increased the expressions of Bcl-2 and NFKBIA, CXCL8 and cyclin D1, indicating that overexpression of EZH1 suppressed NF-κB signaling in aristolochic acid-injured HK-2 cells.

Conclusions

Overexpression of EZH1 reduced HK-2 cell injury induced by aristolochic acid in vitro by inhibition of NF-κB signaling.

Histone Deacetylation Inhibitors as Therapy Concept in Sepsis

Sepsis is characterized by dysregulated gene expression, provoking a hyper-inflammatory response occurring in parallel to a hypo-inflammatory reaction. This is often associated with multi-organ failure, leading to the patient’s death. Therefore, reprogramming of these pro- and anti-inflammatory, as well as immune-response genes which are involved in acute systemic inflammation, is a therapy approach to prevent organ failure and to improve sepsis outcomes. Considering epigenetic, i.e., reversible, modifications of chromatin, not altering the DNA sequence as one tool to adapt the expression profile, inhibition of factors mediating these changes is important. Acetylation of histones by histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and initiating an open-chromatin structure leading to its active transcription is counteracted by histone deacetylases (HDACs). Histone deacetylation triggers a compact nucleosome structure preventing active transcription. Hence, inhibiting the activity of HDACs by specific inhibitors can be used to restore the expression profile of the cells. It can be assumed that HDAC inhibitors will reduce the expression of pro-, as well as anti-inflammatory mediators, which blocks sepsis progression. However, decreased cytokine expression might also be unfavorable, because it can be associated with decreased bacterial clearance.

Carbon monoxide releasing molecule-2 protects mice against acute kidney injury through inhibition of ER stress

Acute kidney injury (AKI), which is defined as a rapid decline of renal function, becomes common and recently recognized to be closely intertwined with chronic kidney diseases. Current treatment for AKI is largely supportive, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has emerged as a novel mediator of AKI. Since carbon monoxide attenuates ER stress, the objective of the present study aimed to determine the protective effect of carbon monoxide releasing molecule-2 (CORM2) on AKI associated with ER stress. Kidney injury was induced after LPS (15 mg/kg) treatment at 12 to 24 h in C57BL/6J mice. Pretreatment of CORM2 (30 mg/kg) effectively prevented LPS-induced oxidative stress and inflammation during AKI in mice. CORM2 treatment also effectively inhibited LPS-induced ER stress in AKI mice. In order to confirm effect of CO on the pathophysiological role of tubular epithelial cells in AKI, we used mProx24 cells. Pretreatment of CORM2 attenuated LPS-induced ER stress, oxidative stress, and inflammation in mProx24 cells. These data suggest that CO therapy may prevent ER stress-mediated AKI.

Fmr1 protects cardiomyocytes against lipopolysaccharide-induced myocardial injury

The present study explored the mechanisms by which fragile X mental retardation 1 (fmr1) overexpression inhibits lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cardiomyocyte injury. Factors including oxidative stress reaction, mitochondrial membrane potential variation and cell apoptosis were evaluated. The viability of H9c2 cells was evaluated with a Cell Counting Kit-8 assay after cells were treated with LPS at different concentrations (0, 1, 3, 6 and 9 µg/ml) for various durations (4, 12 and 24 h). Flow cytometry was used to determine variations in reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential and cell apoptosis. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis were performed to detect the levels of apoptosis-associated factors, and western blot analysis was used to determine the phosphorylation levels of phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K), Akt and forkhead box (Fox)O3a. The results indicated that LPS decreased the viability of H9c2 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Overexpression of fmr1 inhibited the LPS-induced decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential and the production of ROS as well as apoptosis in H9c2 cells. Fmr1 also inhibited LPS-induced reductions in antioxidant enzyme activities, including those of superoxide dismutase and reduced/oxidized glutathione ratio, and decreased LPS-associated increases in the lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde. Apoptosis-associated factors were identified to be involved in the effects of Fmr1. Overexpression of Fmr1 attenuated LPS-associated increases in the apoptosis-activating factors B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)-associated X protein and caspase-3 and decreases in apoptosis inhibitors, including Bcl-2 and X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein. Fmr1 overexpression also reduced LPS-induced increases in the phosphorylation levels of PI3K, Akt and FoxO3a. In conclusion, fmr1 overexpression alleviated oxidative stress and apoptosis in H9c2 cardiomyocytes injured by LPS via regulating oxidative stress and apoptosis-associated factors, as well as the PI3K/Akt pathway. This information may provide a novel and effective therapeutic strategy for heart diseases.