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Armstrong P, Güngör H, Anongjanya P, Tweedy C, Parkin E, Johnston J, Carr IM, Dawson N, Clapcote SJ. Protective effect of PDE4B subtype-specific inhibition in an App knock-in mouse model for Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychopharmacology 2024:10.1038/s41386-024-01852-z. [PMID: 38521860 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-024-01852-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Meta-analysis of genome-wide association study data has implicated PDE4B in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), the leading cause of senile dementia. PDE4B encodes one of four subtypes of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-specific phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4A-D). To interrogate the involvement of PDE4B in the manifestation of AD-related phenotypes, the effects of a hypomorphic mutation (Pde4bY358C) that decreases PDE4B's cAMP hydrolytic activity were evaluated in the AppNL-G-F knock-in mouse model of AD using the Barnes maze test of spatial memory, 14C-2-deoxyglucose autoradiography, thioflavin-S staining of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques, and inflammatory marker assay and transcriptomic analysis (RNA sequencing) of cerebral cortical tissue. At 12 months of age, AppNL-G-F mice exhibited spatial memory and brain metabolism deficits, which were prevented by the hypomorphic PDE4B in AppNL-G-F/Pde4bY358C mice, without a decrease in Aβ plaque burden. RNA sequencing revealed that, among the 531 transcripts differentially expressed in AppNL-G-F versus wild-type mice, only 13 transcripts from four genes - Ide, Btaf1, Padi2, and C1qb - were differentially expressed in AppNL-G-F/Pde4bY358C versus AppNL-G-F mice, identifying their potential involvement in the protective effect of hypomorphic PDE4B. Our data demonstrate that spatial memory and cerebral glucose metabolism deficits exhibited by 12-month-old AppNL-G-F mice are prevented by targeted inhibition of PDE4B. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of a protective effect of PDE4B subtype-specific inhibition in a preclinical model of AD. It thus identifies PDE4B as a key regulator of disease manifestation in the AppNL-G-F model and a promising therapeutic target for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Armstrong
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK
| | - Hüseyin Güngör
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, LA1 4YG, Lancaster, UK
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, 58140, Turkey
| | - Pariya Anongjanya
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK
| | - Clare Tweedy
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK
| | - Edward Parkin
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, LA1 4YG, Lancaster, UK
| | - Jamie Johnston
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK
| | - Ian M Carr
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, LS9 7TF, Leeds, UK
| | - Neil Dawson
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, LA1 4YG, Lancaster, UK
| | - Steven J Clapcote
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK.
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Sziraki A, Lu Z, Lee J, Banyai G, Anderson S, Abdulraouf A, Metzner E, Liao A, Banfelder J, Epstein A, Schaefer C, Xu Z, Zhang Z, Gan L, Nelson PT, Zhou W, Cao J. A global view of aging and Alzheimer's pathogenesis-associated cell population dynamics and molecular signatures in human and mouse brains. Nat Genet 2023; 55:2104-2116. [PMID: 38036784 PMCID: PMC10703679 DOI: 10.1038/s41588-023-01572-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Conventional methods fall short in unraveling the dynamics of rare cell types related to aging and diseases. Here we introduce EasySci, an advanced single-cell combinatorial indexing strategy for exploring age-dependent cellular dynamics in the mammalian brain. Profiling approximately 1.5 million single-cell transcriptomes and 400,000 chromatin accessibility profiles across diverse mouse brains, we identified over 300 cell subtypes, uncovering their molecular characteristics and spatial locations. This comprehensive view elucidates rare cell types expanded or depleted upon aging. We also investigated cell-type-specific responses to genetic alterations linked to Alzheimer's disease, identifying associated rare cell types. Additionally, by profiling 118,240 human brain single-cell transcriptomes, we discerned cell- and region-specific transcriptomic changes tied to Alzheimer's pathogenesis. In conclusion, this research offers a valuable resource for probing cell-type-specific dynamics in both normal and pathological aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andras Sziraki
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- The David Rockefeller Graduate Program in Bioscience, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ziyu Lu
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- The David Rockefeller Graduate Program in Bioscience, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jasper Lee
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Gabor Banyai
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sonya Anderson
- Department of Pathology and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Abdulraouf Abdulraouf
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- The Tri-Institutional MD-PhD Program, New York, NY, USA
| | - Eli Metzner
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- The Tri-Institutional PhD Program in Computational Biology and Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Andrew Liao
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- The Tri-Institutional MD-PhD Program, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jason Banfelder
- High Performance Computing Resource Center, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alexander Epstein
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- The David Rockefeller Graduate Program in Bioscience, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Chloe Schaefer
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Zihan Xu
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- The David Rockefeller Graduate Program in Bioscience, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Zehao Zhang
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- The David Rockefeller Graduate Program in Bioscience, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Li Gan
- Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Peter T Nelson
- Department of Pathology and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Wei Zhou
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Junyue Cao
- Laboratory of Single Cell Genomics and Population Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.
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Gao Z, Liu C, Yang L, Mei X, Wei X, Kuang J, Zhou K, Xu M. Longitudinal Association Between Depressive Symptoms and Cognitive Function Among Older Adults: A Latent Growth Curve Modeling Approach. Int J Public Health 2022; 67:1605124. [PMID: 36213141 PMCID: PMC9537360 DOI: 10.3389/ijph.2022.1605124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives: Although the evidence from numerous longitudinal studies has indicated a remarkable change in cognitive function (CF) and depressive symptoms (DS) over time, the parallel latent growth curve model (LGCM) has seldom been used to simultaneously investigate the relationship between their change trajectories. This study aimed to examine whether a change in DS was associated with CF over time using an LGCM. Methods: Data were collected from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey’s 2011, 2014, and 2018 waves. A parallel LGCM examined the association between CF and DS. Results: The multivariate conditioned model’s goodness of fit supported the validity of the longitudinal model (Tucker-Lewis index [TLI] = 0.90, comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.96, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.04). The results showed that the CF intercept was positively to the DS slope (β = 0.42, p = 0.004). The CF and DS slopes were significantly linked (β = −0.65, p = 0.002). Conclusion: The findings expand the knowledge about CF’s effect on DS in older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihan Gao
- School of Nursing, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Cuiping Liu
- School of Nursing, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Li Yang
- School of Nursing, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Li Yang,
| | - Xinyi Mei
- School of Nursing, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiao Wei
- School of Nursing, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Jinke Kuang
- School of Nursing, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Kexin Zhou
- School of Nursing, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Mengfan Xu
- School of Nursing, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
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Scariot PP, Gobatto CA, Polisel EE, Gomes AE, Beck WR, Manchado-Gobatto FB. Early-life mice housed in standard stocking density reduce the spontaneous physical activity and increase visceral fat deposition before reaching adulthood. Lab Anim 2022; 56:344-355. [PMID: 35062839 DOI: 10.1177/00236772211065915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Laboratory rodents spend the entire day housed in standard cages that provide a restricted area for movements and might, therefore, limit physical activity. However, it has not been tested in immature rodents of ages ranging from weaning to adulthood (adolescence period) whether the restricted area per animal does actually reduce physical activity and impact the body composition. We analyzed the spontaneous physical activity and feeding behavior during the adolescence of mice kept in two different housing conditions (standard stocking density (SSD) versus low stocking density (LSD)). We aimed to compare the body composition between SSD and LSD groups before they reached adulthood. Differential housing began at four weeks of age and was maintained for four weeks until euthanasia at eight weeks of age. The SSD group had a floor space of 88 cm2 available per animal, while LSD mice were housed with a floor space of 320 cm2 per animal, increasing the individual radius for movement more than three-fold compared with standard requirements. Mice kept in SSD exhibit lower spontaneous physical activity than mice kept in LSD. Early-life exposure to reduced physical activity in mice housed in SSD resulted in greater visceral fat accumulation before adulthood. An environment enabling/stimulating physical activity should be established for rodents as early as possible. This study will be helpful in showing that mice kept in SSD are early exposed to a reduced physical activity already in the adolescence period. Our findings could raise reflections about the translatability of rodents kept in SSD to healthy active humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Pm Scariot
- Laboratory of Applied Sport Physiology, School of Applied Sciences, University of Campinas, Limeira, Brazil
| | - Claudio A Gobatto
- Laboratory of Applied Sport Physiology, School of Applied Sciences, University of Campinas, Limeira, Brazil
| | - Emanuel Ec Polisel
- Laboratory of Applied Sport Physiology, School of Applied Sciences, University of Campinas, Limeira, Brazil
| | - Ana Ec Gomes
- Laboratory of Applied Sport Physiology, School of Applied Sciences, University of Campinas, Limeira, Brazil
| | - Wladimir R Beck
- Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology and Physical Exercise, Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Fúlvia B Manchado-Gobatto
- Laboratory of Applied Sport Physiology, School of Applied Sciences, University of Campinas, Limeira, Brazil
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Deng C, Chen H, Meng Z, Meng S. Roles of traditional chinese medicine regulating neuroendocrinology on AD treatment. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:955618. [PMID: 36213283 PMCID: PMC9533021 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.955618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) is increasing in recent years. Studies have shown that in addition to some genetic abnormalities, the majority of AD patients has a history of long-term exposure to risk factors. Neuroendocrine related risk factors have been proved to be strongly associated with AD. Long-term hormone disorder can have a direct detrimental effect on the brain by producing an AD-like pathology and result in cognitive decline by impairing neuronal metabolism, plasticity and survival. Traditional Chinese Medicine(TCM) may regulate the complex process of endocrine disorders, and improve metabolic abnormalities, as well as the resulting neuroinflammation and oxidative damage through a variety of pathways. TCM has unique therapeutic advantages in treating early intervention of AD-related neuroendocrine disorders and preventing cognitive decline. This paper reviewed the relationship between neuroendocrine and AD as well as the related TCM treatment and its mechanism. The advantages of TCM intervention on endocrine disorders and some pending problems was also discussed, and new insights for TCM treatment of dementia in the future was provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chujun Deng
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Huize Chen
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Zeyu Meng
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Shengxi Meng
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Shengxi Meng,
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Huang HJ, Huang CY, Lee M, Lin JY, Hsieh-Li HM. Puerariae Radix Prevents Anxiety and Cognitive Deficits in Mice Under Oligomeric Aβ-Induced Stress. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2020; 47:1459-1481. [PMID: 31752523 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x19500757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
To evaluate the therapeutic effects of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) for Alzheimer's disease (AD), we evaluated five CHMs in oligomeric Aβ25-35-treated mouse primary hippocampal neuronal cultures. The aqueous extract from the root of Pueraria lobata (Puerariae Radix; PR) showed better neuroprotective effects than did the other four CHM aqueous extracts, including Gardenia jasminoides, Eleutherococcus senticosus, Rhodiola rosea, and Panax, in the primary culture treated with saline or oligomeric Aβ25-35. Furthermore, the neuroprotective effects of aqueous extract of PR were also better than its well-known active compound, puerarin, against the neurotoxicity of oligomeric Aβ25-35 in a primary culture. For in vivo experiments, C57BL/6J male mice that received direct infusion of soluble oligomeric Aβ25-35 into the bilateral hippocampal CA1 subregion were used as an alternative AD mouse model. The effects and molecular mechanisms of chronic systemic administration of PR aqueous extract were evaluated in the alternative AD model. PR aqueous extract prevented anxiety and cognitive impairment in mice associated with a decrease in the levels of Aβ deposition, tau protein phosphorylation, inflammation, loss of noradrenergic, and serotonergic neurons and an increase in the levels of synaptophysin and insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) against the toxicity of oligomeric Aβ25-35. Furthermore, no obvious damage to the liver and kidney was detected after chronic systemic administration of PR aqueous extract. Therefore, using PR could be a safer, more effective therapeutic strategy than using its active compound puerarin to prevent both cognitive and noncognitive dysfunction and related pathological features of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hei-Jen Huang
- Department of Nursing, Mackay Junior College of Medicine, Nursing, and Management, Taipei 11260, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Yi Huang
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
| | - Mingchung Lee
- Brion Research Institute, New Taipei City 23143, Taiwan
| | - Jung-Yaw Lin
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
| | - Hsiu Mei Hsieh-Li
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
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Chen Q, Ma H, Guo X, Liu J, Gui T, Gai Z. Farnesoid X Receptor (FXR) Aggravates Amyloid-β-Triggered Apoptosis by Modulating the cAMP-Response Element-Binding Protein (CREB)/Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Pathway In Vitro. Med Sci Monit 2019; 25:9335-9345. [PMID: 31812977 PMCID: PMC6918812 DOI: 10.12659/msm.920065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Alzheimer’s disease (AD), which results in cognitive deficits, usually occurs in older people and is mainly caused by amyloid beta (Aβ) deposits and neurofibrillary tangles. The bile acid receptor, farnesoid X receptor (FXR), has been extensively studied in cardiovascular diseases and digestive diseases. However, the role of FXR in AD is not yet understood. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the mechanism of FXR function in AD. Material/Methods Lentivirus infection, flow cytometry, real-time PCR, and western blotting were used to detect the gain or loss of FXR in cell apoptosis induced by Aβ. Co-immunoprecipitation was used to analyze the molecular partners involved in Aβ-induced apoptosis. Results We found that the mRNA and protein expression of FXR was enhanced in Aβ-triggered neuronal apoptosis in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells and in mouse hippocampal neurons. Overexpression of FXR aggravated Aβ-triggered neuronal apoptosis in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells, and this effect was further increased by treatment with the FXR agonist 6ECDCA. Molecular mechanism analysis by co-immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting revealed that FXR interacted with the cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB), leading to decreased CREB and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein levels. Low expression of FXR mostly reversed the Aβ-triggered neuronal apoptosis effect and prevented the reduction in CREB and BDNF. Conclusions These data suggest that FXR regulates Aβ-induced neuronal apoptosis, which may be dependent on the CREB/BDNF signaling pathway in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingfa Chen
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Liaocheng University/Liaocheng People's Hospital, Liaocheng, Shandong, China (mainland)
| | - Hongling Ma
- Department of Neurology, Liaocheng People's Hospital, Liaocheng, Shandong, China (mainland)
| | - Xuewen Guo
- Department of Neurology, Dongchangfu People's Hospital/Second People's Hospital of Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China (mainland)
| | - Jia Liu
- Department of Neurology, Liaocheng People's Hospital, Liaocheng, Shandong, China (mainland)
| | - Ting Gui
- Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine for Classical Theory, Ministry of Education, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China (mainland)
| | - Zhibo Gai
- Joint Pharmacology Center, Liaocheng People's Hospital, Liaocheng, Shandong, China (mainland).,Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Sun H, Liu M, Sun T, Chen Y, Lan Z, Lian B, Zhao C, Liu Z, Zhang J, Liu Y. Age-related changes in hippocampal AD pathology, actin remodeling proteins and spatial memory behavior of male APP/PS1 mice. Behav Brain Res 2019; 376:112182. [PMID: 31472195 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia in the elderly, characterized by amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and tau neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Synaptic plasticity impairment is one of the early pathological events in AD. Transgenic APP/PS1 mice that overproduce Aβ are one of the most extensively used AD animal models. Many studies have investigated the roles of NTF-related p-Tau, non-amyloidogenic ADAM10, amyloidogenic BACE1, Aβ proteolytic NEP and IDE in certain ages of APP/PS1 mice as well as dendritic spine-related Rictor and Profilin-1 in normal mice, but there are few studies exploring the age-related changes of these molecules in the hippocampus of APP/PS1 mice. Furthermore, current studies regarding when memory impairment occurs in these mice are controversial. Thus, we examined the changes of these molecules in APP/PS1 and control mice using Western blot in mice 2-month-old (2 m) to 10 m of age and behavior changes using the Morris water maze from 4 m to 8 m. The results showed that in APP/PS1 mice, significant changes of hippocampal p-Tau, Aβ, ADAM10, BACE1 and Rictor occurred at 6 m, NEP at 8 m, and IDE and Profilin-1 at 10 m. In control mice, changes of p-Tau, ADAM10, and BACE1 occurred at 8 m and NEP at 10 m, while IDE, Rictor and Profilin-1 remained unchanged. Importantly, the Morris water maze test revealed that spatial memory impairment was detected at 8 m but not 4 or 6 m. The above findings clearly evidence that neurochemical changes overtly precede cognitive dysfunctions in this AD model and provide novel knowledge for a better understanding of the molecular events driving AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Sun
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fish Reproduction and Development (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Mengying Liu
- Department of Neurobiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Tao Sun
- Department of Neurobiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Yutong Chen
- Student Brigade, College of Basic Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Zhen Lan
- Department of Neurobiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Biyao Lian
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Chengjun Zhao
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Zhi Liu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Jiqiang Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China.
| | - Yan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fish Reproduction and Development (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China.
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