Important behavioral traits for predicting guide dog qualification

Development of a modified C-BARQ for evaluating behavior in working dogs

Introduction

Current high demand for effective odor detection dogs calls for the development of reliable methods for measuring performance-related behavioral phenotypes in these highly specialized working animals. The Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) is a widely used behavioral assessment tool among working dog organizations with a demonstrated ability to predict success/failure of dogs in training. However, this instrument was developed originally to study the prevalence of behavior problems in the pet dog population, and it therefore lacks the capacity to measure specific behavioral propensities that may also be important predictors of working dog success. The current paper examines the factor structure, internal reliability, and content validity of a modified version of the C-BARQ designed to evaluate four new domains of canine behavior in addition to those encompassed by the original C-BARQ. These domains, labeled Playfulness, Impulsivity, Distractibility, and Basophobia (fear of falling), respectively, describe aspects of canine behavior or temperament which are believed to contribute substantially to working dog performance.

Methods

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of owner/handler questionnaire responses based on a sample of 1,117 working odor detection dogs.

Results

A total of 15 factors were extracted by EFA, 10 of which correspond to original C-BARQ factors. The remaining 5 comprise the four new domains- Playfulness, Impulsivity, Distractibility, and Basophobia- as well as a fifth new factor labeled Food focus.

Discussion

The resulting Working Dog Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire (WDC-BARQ) successfully expands the measurement capacities of the original C-BARQ to include dimensions of behavior/temperament of particular relevance to many working dog populations.

Quantifying canine interactions with smart toys assesses suitability for service dog work

There are approximately a half million active service dogs in the United States, providing life-changing assistance and independence to people with a wide range of disabilities. The tremendous value of service dogs creates significant demand, which service dog providers struggle to meet. Breeding, raising, and training service dogs is an expensive, time-consuming endeavor which is exacerbated by expending resources on dogs who ultimately will prove to be unsuitable for service dog work because of temperament issues. Quantifying behavior and temperament through sensor-instrumented dog toys can provide a way to predict which dogs will be suitable for service dog work, allowing resources to be focused on the dogs likely to succeed. In a 2-year study, we tested dogs in advanced training at Canine Companions for Independence with instrumented toys, and we discovered that a measure of average bite duration is significantly correlated with a dog's placement success as a service dog [Adjusted OR = 0.12, Pr(>|z|) = 0.00666]. Applying instrumented toy interactions to current behavioral assessments could yield more accurate measures for predicting successful placement of service dogs while reducing the workload of the trainers.

Characterizing veteran and PTSD service dog teams: Exploring potential mechanisms of symptom change and canine predictors of efficacy

Psychiatric service dogs are an emerging complementary intervention for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Initial evidence suggests that partnership with a service dog may be related to less PTSD symptom severity. However, it remains unclear how or why this might occur. To address this gap, we conducted a longitudinal investigation of 82 post-9/11 military members or veterans and their PTSD service dogs to (1) evaluate service dog characteristics as potential predictors of efficacy, (2) assess dog and human characteristics as potential predictors of veteran-dog bond, and (3) explore potential mechanisms for mental health outcomes. Aim 1 results demonstrated that most service dog characteristics did not predict veterans' mental health outcomes, but lower service dog excitability was associated with less PTSD symptom severity at follow-up. Aim 2 results showed that closer dog-veteran relationships were associated with less excitable dog temperament. Aim 3 results indicated that worse mental health at follow-up was associated with greater use of the specifically trained PTSD service dog task to initiate a social greeting ("make a friend"), whereas better mental health was related to less use of dominance-based training methods, lower perceived emotional/logistical costs of service dog partnership, and closer veteran-dog relationships. More frequent use of the trained service dog task to signal when someone approaches from behind (cover/watch back) was associated with greater anxiety, but less PTSD symptom severity. Overall, veterans spent an average of 82% of their time with service dogs (assessed via Bluetooth proximity between dog collar and veteran smartphone), and most frequently asked their service dogs to perform the trained task for calming their anxiety (calm/comfort anxiety). The present study provides subjective and objective metrics of the heterogeneity among veteran-service dog dyads while also suggesting which of the assessed metrics might be potential mechanisms involved in the intervention.

Clustering for Automated Exploratory Pattern Discovery in Animal Behavioral Data

Traditional methods of data analysis in animal behavior research are usually based on measuring behavior by manually coding a set of chosen behavioral parameters, which is naturally prone to human bias and error, and is also a tedious labor-intensive task. Machine learning techniques are increasingly applied to support researchers in this field, mostly in a supervised manner: for tracking animals, detecting land marks or recognizing actions. Unsupervised methods are increasingly used, but are under-explored in the context of behavior studies and applied contexts such as behavioral testing of dogs. This study explores the potential of unsupervised approaches such as clustering for the automated discovery of patterns in data which have potential behavioral meaning. We aim to demonstrate that such patterns can be useful at exploratory stages of data analysis before forming specific hypotheses. To this end, we propose a concrete method for grouping video trials of behavioral testing of animal individuals into clusters using a set of potentially relevant features. Using an example of protocol for testing in a “Stranger Test”, we compare the discovered clusters against the C-BARQ owner-based questionnaire, which is commonly used for dog behavioral trait assessment, showing that our method separated well between dogs with higher C-BARQ scores for stranger fear, and those with lower scores. This demonstrates potential use of such clustering approach for exploration prior to hypothesis forming and testing in behavioral research.

Development of Desirable Behaviors in Dog-Assisted Interventions

Simple Summary

In a recent paper, Hall et al. encouraged professionals of canine training to share their observations and procedures with researchers in the field of dog learning and cognition, with the goal of coordinating knowledge and make better use of time and resources. In response to this invitation, here, we present an integrative method for the training of dogs that take part in animal-assisted interventions (AAI). This method has been developed taking into account the needs observed during nearly 30 years of interventions for the cognitive, relational, functional, and emotional improvement of the users. This method focuses on the dog, developing in the animals the necessary skills for their inclusion in dog-assisted interventions from a constructivist perspective, while guaranteeing their well-being during the training and the execution of their tasks.

Abstract

Dog-assisted interventions (DAI) are those that include specially trained dogs in human health services. Often, the training methods employed to train animals for DAI are transmitted between trainers, so the latest scientific research on dog learning and cognition is not always taken into account. The present work aims to evaluate the impact that the main theories on the evolution of the dog have had both in promoting different training methods and in the relevance of behavior in the evolution of the skills of actual dogs. Then, an integrative method for the training of dogs is presented. This method takes into account the research on dog learning mechanisms and cognition processes, and effectively promotes the development of desirable behaviors for DAI during the dog’s ontogeny.

Artificial Selection Drives SNPs of Olfactory Receptor Genes into Different Working Traits in Labrador Retrievers

Labs as guide dogs or sniffer dogs in usage have been introduced into China for more than 20 years. These two types of working dogs own blunt or acute olfactory senses, which have been obtained by artificial selection in relatively closed populations. In order to attain stable olfactory attributes and meet use-oriented demands, Chinese breeders keep doing the same artificial selection. Though olfactory behavior is canine genetic behavior, genotypes of OR genes formed by breeding schemes are largely unknown. Here, we characterized 26 SNPs, 2 deletions, and 2 insertions of 7 OR genes between sniffer dogs and guide dogs in order to find out the candidate alleles associated with working specific traits. The results showed that there were candidate functional SNP alleles in one locus that had statistically severely significant differences between the two subpopulations. Furthermore, the levels of polymorphism were not high in all loci and linkage disequilibrium only happened within one OR gene. Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) tests showed that there was a higher ratio not in HWE and lower FST within the two working dog populations. We conclude that artificial selection in working capacities has acted on SNP alleles of OR genes in a dog breed and driven the evolution in compliance with people's intentions though the changes are limited in decades of strategic breeding.

Neurohormonal Profiles of Assistance Dogs Compared to Pet Dogs: What Is the Impact of Different Lifestyles?

Simple Summary

Dogs are currently involved in various roles in our society beyond companionship. The tasks humans assign to them impact their daily life and can sometimes create stressful situations, possibly jeopardizing their welfare. For example, assistance dogs need to manage their emotions in various challenging situations and environments. Thus, the capacity to cope with emotional stress is highly desirable in assistance dogs (~40% of assistance dogs fail to complete their education program). The emotional and stress responses are guided by brain processes involving neuromodulators. Neurohormonal profiling of these dogs can: (i) give cues about their emotional suitability to fulfill an assistance role; (ii) enhance their selection; and (iii) help to assess and improve their welfare state during the training course. We compared basal blood levels of three neuromodulators of interest between two populations, assistance vs. pet dogs. We found significantly different concentrations of oxytocin, a neuromodulator involved in social behavior. Levels of prolactin, a putative marker of chronic stress, were higher (although not statistically significant) and variable in assistance dogs. Dogs’ age also seemed to influence the various neuromodulators levels. These findings highlight the impact of different lifestyles undergone by dogs and the possibility to use neurohormonal profiling to monitor their effect on the dogs’ welfare and stress state.

Abstract

Assistance dogs must manage stress efficiently because they are involved in challenging tasks. Their welfare is currently a fundamental issue. This preliminary study aimed to compare assistance dogs (AD; n = 22) with pet dogs (PD; n = 24), using blood neuromodulator indicators to help find biomarkers that can improve the AD breeding, selection, training, and welfare monitoring. Both populations originated from different breeds, are of different ages, and had different lifestyles. Basal peripheral concentrations of prolactin (PRL), serotonin (5-HT), free (fOT) and total (tOT) oxytocin were measured by immunoassays. Multiple linear regressions were performed to assess the effect of activity, age, sex, and their interactions on these parameters. Correlations between neurohormonal levels were analyzed. No interactions were significant. fOT and tOT concentrations were significantly influenced by age (p < 0.0001 and p = 0.0002, respectively) and dogs’ activity (p = 0.0006 and p = 0.0277, respectively). A tendency was observed for age effect on PRL (p = 0.0625) and 5-HT (p = 0.0548), as well as for sex effect on tOT (p = 0.0588). PRL concentrations were heterogenous among AD. fOT and tOT were significantly but weakly correlated (Pearson’s r = 0.34; p = 0.04). Blood prolactin, serotonin, and oxytocin may represent biomarkers to assess workload and chronic stress-related responses in ADs and eventually improve their selection and training.

Development and Training for Working Dogs

Individual differences in behavior lead to wide variability in working dog suitability, and are the primary reason for rejection or early release. Behavioral suitability of a working dog is shaped by interactions with its environment during early development and specialized training. Understanding how aspects of development and training affect a working dog's performance is critical for practitioners to effectively evaluate and treat behavioral concerns in working dogs. This article provides an overview of critical aspects of puppy development that influence future behavior, and reviews important features of training that influence a dog's ability to learn and perform its designated task.

Enhancing the Selection and Performance of Working Dogs

Dogs perform a variety of integral roles in our society, engaging in work ranging from assistance (e.g., service dogs, guide dogs) and therapy to detection (e.g., search-and-rescue dogs, explosive detection dogs) and protection (e.g., military and law enforcement dogs). However, success in these roles, which requires dogs to meet challenging behavioral criteria and to undergo extensive training, is far from guaranteed. Therefore, enhancing the selection process is critical for the effectiveness and efficiency of working dog programs and has the potential to optimize how resources are invested in these programs, increase the number of available working dogs, and improve working dog welfare. In this paper, we review two main approaches for achieving this goal: (1) developing selection tests and criteria that can efficiently and effectively identify ideal candidates from the overall pool of candidate dogs, and (2) developing approaches to enhance performance, both at the individual and population level, via improvements in rearing, training, and breeding. We summarize key findings from the empirical literature regarding best practices for assessing, selecting, and improving working dogs, and conclude with future steps and recommendations for working dog organizations, breeders, trainers, and researchers.

Facilitators and Barriers to Assistance Dog Puppy Raisers' Engagement in Recommended Raising Practices

Simple Summary

Raisers volunteer to raise and manage an assistance dog puppy for about a year and typically receive instructions for a wide range of puppy raising tasks from a host organisation. Those tasks vary among organisations, although the literature suggests that raisers should provide frequent socialisation and consistent training to their puppy, and engage in effective learning to improve their own practices. As those tasks are heavily embedded in the raisers’ daily lives, it is not easy to determine if any factors could affect their puppy raising. In this study, we interviewed eight puppy raisers monthly during their participation in an 11-month puppy raising program based at a university campus. Raisers thought that their puppies received more socialisation when they had more availability or someone else to share this responsibility with them, or when the puppies behaved well. Raisers could train their puppy more consistently when they had been prepared to deal with different scenarios occurring during their daily activities. While raisers found that some learning methods suited them better, they generally appreciated opportunities to learn, seek help from, and practise with other raisers. We hope these findings will inform development and evaluation of future programs aimed at improving practices and experiences of raisers.

Abstract

Many assistance dog providers use volunteer raisers to manage each puppy’s learning and daily experiences, which partly determines the puppy’s behavioural development. Therefore, it is important that raisers engage in recommended practices. Three common recommendations from the literature include frequent socialisation and consistent training for the puppies, and effective training for the raisers. However, what facilitates or hinders raisers’ engagement in these practices remains unclear. To understand this, we interviewed eight raisers (three men and five women) every month during their year-long puppy raising program, and pseudo-randomly selected 16 from 48 interviews for data analysis. Thematic analyses revealed several facilitating and/or hindering factors corresponding to each of the three recommended practices. Frequent socialisation was influenced by the raisers’ availability, sharing of puppy raising responsibility with others, support from their workplace, and the puppy’s behaviours (e.g., soiling indoors, jumping). Consistent training was challenged by the presence of everyday distractors, accessibility to timely advice, perceived judgement from others, and the puppy’s undesirable behaviours. Effective learning was facilitated by having information available in raisers’ preferred learning modality, opportunities for peer-learning, and willingness to seek help. Future research should examine these factors quantitatively, which will enable more robust evaluation of programs aimed at supporting puppy raisers.

Validation of a Behavior Test for Predicting Puppies' Suitability as Detection Dogs

Behavioral characteristics are the most influential factor in the success of a working dog. The need for highly capable detection dogs continues to rise; but reliable methods for early selection are lacking. The current study aimed to assess the reliability and validity of a behavioral test for assessing detection dog suitability. A cohort of candidate detection dog puppies (n = 60) were tested at 3; 5; and 11 months of age; as well as at the completion of training at approximately one year. Tests were designed to assess important detection dog behavioral characteristics such as search ability and fearfulness. Inter-rater reliability was high between independent observers. Convergent validity was demonstrated by comparing Principal Component Analysis (PCA) scores from the behavior test to trainer ratings using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and a survey of detection dog traits. Performance on the behavior test predicted adult selection as a detection dog as early as 3 months. The methods reported will be valuable for improving selection measures and enhancing collaborations across breeding programs in order to increase the availability of highly capable detection dogs.

Early Evaluation of Fearfulness in Future Guide Dogs for Blind People

Fear is the leading cause of guide dog failure. Detecting the nature and causes of these fears as early as possible is the first step in preventing their occurrence. The process of habituation is a fundamental part of fear prevention. In this study, 11 puppies, all five months of age, underwent an emotional reactivity test (ERT) composed of 12 scored items, classified into three categories: unknown person (UP), sound and visual stimuli (SVS), and body sensitivity (BS). Salivary cortisol was also measured. Foster families were asked to complete a questionnaire concerning puppies' habituation. The physiological data were correlated with UP (r = 0.71) and BS scores (r = 0.67), but not with SVS scores (r = 0.16), suggesting the ability of these dogs to control themselves when faced with the latter stimulus category. Additionally, the more time a puppy spent alone, the more likely it was to be afraid of SVS (p = 0.05). A correlation, albeit moderate, was detected between cortisol and habituation scores (r = 0.48). These results give us interesting avenues to explore, particularly regarding the importance of focusing on early puppy socialization and habituation to improve the numbers of guide dog candidates becoming successful guide dogs.

Concurrent and Predictive Criterion Validity of a Puppy Behaviour Questionnaire for Predicting Training Outcome in Juvenile Guide Dogs

Working dog organisations regularly assess the behaviour of puppies to monitor progression. Here, we tested the predictive validity (for predicting success in guide dog training) of a shortened version of a previously developed juvenile dog behaviour questionnaire (the refined puppy walker questionnaire, r-PWQ) and compared it with the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). The r-PWQ is used by Guide Dogs UK, whereas the C-BARQ was designed for pet dogs and is used by some other guide dog schools internationally. A cohort of dogs aged eight months (n = 359) were scored concurrently on the r-PWQ and C-BARQ. Analogous traits between the questionnaires were evaluated for internal consistency and association with training outcome and compared for concurrent validity. The r-PWQ was associated with training outcome for five scales (r-Excitability, Trainability, Animal Chase, r-Attachment and attention seeking and Distractibility) and the C-BARQ for two scales (Excitability and Separation-related behaviour). There were significant correlations between analogous C-BARQ and r-PWQ trait scores (p < 0.001) except for Separation-related behaviour and questionnaire scales had similar internal consistencies. The r-PWQ may be more suitable to use with guide dog schools. However, due to the correlation between analogous scales (except for "Distractibility") some scales could be substituted for one another when reviewing the behaviour of dogs between guide dog schools using different questionnaires.

Raising an Assistance Dog Puppy-Stakeholder Perspectives on What Helps and What Hinders

Simple Summary

Puppy raisers (or foster families) are volunteers who care for assistance dog puppies until they are ready to learn how to help people with a disability. During this period, some puppies develop behaviours unsuitable for assistance roles and end up changing careers or being rehomed as pets, which is wasteful. Puppy raisers control the early experiences of their puppies, and they vary in their puppy-raising outcomes, but we do not know what specifically helps some puppy raisers produce puppies that are behaviourally suitable for an assistance role. In this study, we interviewed 17 people from seven countries who were either experienced puppy raisers or provider program staff, or both. Their responses suggested several individual factors (expectations, competency, perseverance and passion) and social factors (informational and emotional supports), in addition to the puppies’ characteristics, that influenced the experiences and perceived effectiveness of their puppy-raising practices. These factors are also evident in other well-established areas of research (e.g., education, volunteerism, social support, and organisational performance). We propose recommendations for assistance dog organisations based on those relevant frameworks, which focus on enhancing puppy raisers’ competency, positive experiences, and program retention.

Abstract

Assistance dog puppies live with their raisers for up to 16 months before entering advanced training and, hopefully, becoming qualified to help people with a disability. Almost half of the puppies fail to meet the behavioural standards required for assistance dogs, and some puppy raisers produce more behaviourally favourable puppies than others. It is unclear what factors influence puppy-raising practice quality. To understand this, we interviewed 17 participants, including experienced puppy raisers (n = 8), provider organisation staff (n = 4), and those who have served both as puppy raisers and staff (n = 5). Results of a thematic analysis suggest three groups of influencing factors, namely intrapersonal factors, social support, and puppy characteristics. Intrapersonal factors such as expectations, competency, perseverance and passion were reported to influence puppy raisers’ experiences, puppy-raising quality, and continuity of service. Contextual factors such as availability of social support (informational and emotional supports) and less-demanding puppies both led to positive puppy-raising experiences, while the former also contributed to puppy raisers’ perceptions of competency. Future research should quantitatively examine the interrelationships of these factors concerning puppies’ behavioural development. Meanwhile, organisations could consider these factors when developing their recruitment and puppy-raiser support programs.

Rejections in an non-purpose bred assistance dog population: Reasons, consequences and methods for screening

Assistance dogs aid people with various impairments on a daily basis. To become an assistance dog, a strict selection procedure and intensive training period must be successfully completed. Consequently, not every dog acquired for this purpose, becomes an assistance dog. The purpose of this study was to investigate reasons for failure and the financial consequences thereof for assistance dog associations that do not have a dedicated breeding program for their dogs. Data were collected for a total of 537 dogs enlisted between 2001 and 2015 and purchased out of the general dog population by five Belgian assistance dog associations. Only 60 percent of the dogs actually became an assistance dog and the main reasons for failure were related to undesirable behavioural characteristics and orthopaedic disorders. The estimated average financial loss per rejected dog was found to be 10524 euro. A detailed comparison of the two most popular breeds (Golden Retriever and Labrador Retriever) within the guide dogs and mobility assistance dogs revealed no significant difference in probability of successfully completing the training. However, a comparison of orthopaedic screening methods revealed a higher rejection with computed tomography for elbow dysplasia and laxity-based radiographical techniques for hip dysplasia compared to radiography and the standard ventrodorsal hip extend radiograph alone, respectively. Based on these results, we provide several suggestions to increase the probability of success.

Homozygosity for Mobile Element Insertions Associated with WBSCR17 Could Predict Success in Assistance Dog Training Programs

Assistance dog training programs can see as many as 60% of their trainees dismissed. Many training programs utilize behavioral assays prior to admittance to identify likely successful candidates, yet such assays can be insconsistent. Recently, four canine retrotransposon mobile element insertions (MEIs) in or near genes WBSCR17 (Cfa6.6 and Cfa6.7), GTF2I (Cfa6.66) and POM121 (Cfa6.83) were identified in domestic dogs and gray wolves. Variations in these MEIs were significantly associated with a heightened propensity to initiate prolonged social contact or hypersociability. Using our dataset of 837 dogs, 228 of which had paired survey-based behavioral data, we discovered that one of the insertions in WBSCR17 is the most important predictor of dog sociable behaviors related to human proximity, measured by the Canine Behavioral Assessment Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ©). We found a positive correlation between insertions at Cfa6.6 and dog separation distress in the form of restlessness when about to be left alone by the owner. Lastly, assistance dogs showed significant heterozygosity deficiency at locus Cfa6.6 and higher frequency of insertions at Cfa6.6 and Cfa6.7. We suggest that training programs could utilize this genetic survey to screen for MEIs at WBSCR17 to identify dogs with sociable traits compatible with successful assistance dog performance.

Predictive Models of Assistance Dog Training Outcomes Using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire and a Standardized Temperament Evaluation

Assistance dogs can greatly improve the lives of people with disabilities. However, a large proportion of dogs bred and trained for this purpose are deemed unable to successfully fulfill the behavioral demands of this role. Often, this determination is not finalized until weeks or even months into training, when the dog is close to 2 years old. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop objective selection protocols that can identify dogs most and least likely to succeed, from early in the training process. We assessed the predictive validity of two candidate measures employed by Canine Companions for Independence (CCI), a national assistance dog organization headquartered in Santa Rosa, CA. For more than a decade, CCI has collected data on their population using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and a standardized temperament assessment known internally as the In-For-Training (IFT) test, which is conducted at the beginning of professional training. Data from both measures were divided into independent training and test datasets, with the training data used for variable selection and cross-validation. We developed three predictive models in which we predicted success or release from the training program using C-BARQ scores (N = 3,569), IFT scores (N = 5,967), and a combination of scores from both instruments (N = 2,990). All three final models performed significantly better than the null expectation when applied to the test data, with overall accuracies ranging from 64 to 68%. Model predictions were most accurate for dogs predicted to have the lowest probability of success (ranging from 85 to 92% accurate for dogs in the lowest 10% of predicted probabilities), and moderately accurate for identifying the dogs most likely to succeed (ranging from 62 to 72% for dogs in the top 10% of predicted probabilities). Combining C-BARQ and IFT predictors into a single model did not improve overall accuracy, although it did improve accuracy for dogs in the lowest 20% of predicted probabilities. Our results suggest that both types of assessments have the potential to be used as powerful screening tools, thereby allowing more efficient allocation of resources in assistance dog selection and training.

Spotlight on Assistance Dogs-Legislation, Welfare and Research

Simple Summary

Assistance dogs support humans with a variety of disabilities. Although guide dogs in particular have a long tradition in Western cultures, the legal situation around assistance dogs has been insufficiently developed in many countries so far—a situation that potentially negatively affects both animal and owner. There is also an insufficient amount of research examining assistance dogs in other areas. Studies investigating assistance dogs’ welfare status, cognitive and behavioural capacities, selection criteria for the best fitting individuals, effective training and management practices, and genetic issues, are so far mainly lacking. This review takes a comprehensive approach—it initially outlines important aspects of the current legal situation for assistance dogs in the European Union and Australia, and then it summarizes research findings focusing on dogs’ welfare, cognition, behaviour, health and training. For each of these areas, the need for future development is highlighted and potential ideas for future directions are discussed.

Abstract

Assistance dogs are a very diverse group of working dogs that are trained to assist humans with different types of disabilities in their daily lives. Despite these dogs’ value for humankind, research on their welfare status, cognitive and behavioural capacities, selection criteria for the best fitting individuals, effective training and management practices, and genetic issues are so far lacking. This review highlights the need to address these topics and to promote progress in legal issues around assistance dogs. The topic of assistance dogs is approached comprehensively by outlining the current status of knowledge in three different dimensions: (1) the legal dimension, outlining important legal issues in the EU and Australia; (2) the welfare dimension; and (3) the dimension of research, covering assistance dog selection and training. For each of these three dimensions, we discuss potential approaches that can be implemented in the future in order to support assistance dog working performance, to protect the dogs’ welfare, and to improve our knowledge about them. Additionally, there remain many legal issues, such as the presence of assistance dogs in public areas, the resolution of which would benefit both the assistance dog and the owner with disability.

An evidence-based decision assistance model for predicting training outcome in juvenile guide dogs

Working dog organisations, such as Guide Dogs, need to regularly assess the behaviour of the dogs they train. In this study we developed a questionnaire-style behaviour assessment completed by training supervisors of juvenile guide dogs aged 5, 8 and 12 months old (n = 1,401), and evaluated aspects of its reliability and validity. Specifically, internal reliability, temporal consistency, construct validity, predictive criterion validity (comparing against later training outcome) and concurrent criterion validity (comparing against a standardised behaviour test) were evaluated. Thirty-nine questions were sourced either from previously published literature or created to meet requirements identified via Guide Dogs staff surveys and staff feedback. Internal reliability analyses revealed seven reliable and interpretable trait scales named according to the questions within them as: Adaptability; Body Sensitivity; Distractibility; Excitability; General Anxiety; Trainability and Stair Anxiety. Intra-individual temporal consistency of the scale scores between 5–8, 8–12 and 5–12 months was high. All scales excepting Body Sensitivity showed some degree of concurrent criterion validity. Predictive criterion validity was supported for all seven scales, since associations were found with training outcome, at at-least one age. Thresholds of z-scores on the scales were identified that were able to distinguish later training outcome by identifying 8.4% of all dogs withdrawn for behaviour and 8.5% of all qualified dogs, with 84% and 85% specificity. The questionnaire assessment was reliable and could detect traits that are consistent within individuals over time, despite juvenile dogs undergoing development during the study period. By applying thresholds to scores produced from the questionnaire this assessment could prove to be a highly valuable decision-making tool for Guide Dogs. This is the first questionnaire-style assessment of juvenile dogs that has shown value in predicting the training outcome of individual working dogs.

"She's a dog at the end of the day": Guide dog owners' perspectives on the behaviour of their guide dog

A guide dog is a domestic dog (Canis familiaris) that is specifically educated to provide mobility support to a blind or visually impaired owner. Current dog suitability assessments focus on behavioural traits, including: trainability, reactivity or attention to environmental stimuli, low aggressiveness, fearfulness and stress behaviour, energy levels, and attachment behaviour. The aim of this study was to find out which aspects of guide dog behaviour are of key importance to guide dog owners themselves. Sixty-three semi-structured interview surveys were carried out with guide dog owners. Topics included the behaviour of their guide dog both within and outside their working role, and also focused on examples of behaviour which might be considered outside a guide dog owner's typical expectations. Both positive and negative examples and situations were covered. This allowed for the discovery of new perspectives and emerging themes on living and working with a guide dog. Thematic analysis of the results reveals that a dog's safe behaviour in the face of traffic was the most important positive aspect of a guide dog's behaviour and pulling or high tension on the lead and /or harness was the most discussed negative aspect. Other aspects of guide dog behaviour were highlighted as particularly pleasing or disappointing by owners including attentiveness to the task, work, environment and owner; confidence in work and decision making (with confident dogs resulting in confident owners) obedience and control; calmness and locating objectives. The results reveal important areas of behaviour that are not currently considered priorities in guide dog assessments; these key areas were consistency of behaviour, the dog's maturity and the dog's behaviour in relation to children. The survey revealed a large range in what owners considered problematic or pleasing behaviours and this highlights the heterogeneity in guide dog owners and the potential multifarious roles of the guide dog. This study contributes to the literature on which behaviour is considered appropriate or inappropriate in dogs and on the nature of human-animal interactions.

Using the incidence and impact of behavioural conditions in guide dogs to investigate patterns in undesirable behaviour in dogs

The domestic dog is one of our most popular companions and longest relationships, occupying different roles, from pet to working guide dog for the blind. As dogs age different behavioural issues occur and in some cases dogs may be relinquished or removed from their working service. Here we analyse a dataset on working guide dogs that were removed from their service between 1994 and 2013. We use the withdrawal reasons as a proxy for the manifestation of undesirable behaviour. More than 7,500 dogs were in the dataset used, 83% of which were retired (due to old age) and 17% were withdrawn for behavioural issues. We found that the main reasons for behaviour withdrawal were environmental anxiety, training, and fear/aggression. Breed and sex had an effect on the odds of dogs being withdrawn under the different reasons. The age at withdrawal for the different withdrawal reasons suggested that dogs were more likely to develop fear/aggression related issues early on, whilst issues related to training could develop at almost any age. We found no evidence for heterosis effecting behaviour. We believe that this work is relevant to the pet dog population and had implications for understanding ageing and genetic influences on behaviour.

Genetics and behavior: a guide for practitioners

Phenotyping behavior is difficult, partly because behavior is almost always influenced by environment. Using objective terms/criteria to evaluate behaviors is best; the more objective the assessment, the more likely underlying genetic patterns will be identified. Behavioral pathologies, and highly desirable behavioral characteristics/traits, are likely complex, meaning that multiple genes are probably involved, and therefore simple genetic tests are less possible. Breeds can be improved using traditional quantitative genetic methods; unfortunately, this also creates the possibility of inadvertently selecting for covarying undesirable behaviors. Patterns of behaviors within families and breed lines are still the best guidelines for genetic counseling in dogs.

"Reactivity to stimuli" is a temperamental factor contributing to canine aggression

Canine aggression is one of the most frequent problems in veterinary behavioral medicine, which in severe cases may result in relinquishment or euthanasia. As it is important to reveal underlying factors of aggression for both treatment and prevention, we recently developed a questionnaire on aggression and temperamental traits and found that “reactivity to stimuli” was associated with aggression toward owners, children, strangers, and other dogs of the Shiba Inu breed. In order to examine whether these associations were consistent in other breeds, we asked the owners of insured dogs of Anicom Insurance Inc. to complete our questionnaire. The top 17 contracted breeds were included. The questionnaire consisted of dogs' general information, four items related to aggression toward owners, children, strangers, and other dogs, and 20 other behavioral items. Aggression-related and behavioral items were rated on a five-point frequency scale. Valid responses (n = 5610) from owners of dogs aged 1 through 10 years were collected. Factor analyses on 18 behavioral items (response rate over 95%) extracted five largely consistent factors in 14 breeds: “sociability with humans,” “fear of sounds,” “chase proneness,” “reactivity to stimuli,” and “avoidance of aversive events.” By stepwise multiple regression analyses, using the Schwartz's Bayesian information criterion (BIC) method with aggression points as objective variables and general information and temperamental factor points as explanatory variables, “reactivity to stimuli,” i.e., physical reactivity to sudden movement or sound at home, was shown to be significantly associated with owner-directed aggression in 13 breeds, child-directed aggression in eight breeds, stranger-directed aggression in nine breeds, and dog-directed aggression in five breeds. These results suggest that “reactivity to stimuli” is simultaneously involved in several types of aggression. Therefore, it would be worth taking “reactivity to stimuli” into account in the treatment and prevention of canine aggression.

Physical and Behavioral Measures that Predict Cats' Socialization in an Animal Shelter Environment during a Three Day Period

Simple Summary

Information from surveys completed by the cats’ caregivers provided a score for the level of socialization of cats. We examined the effectiveness of structured assessments and measures in their ability to distinguish More and Less Socialized cats in a shelter-like setting over a three day period. Statistical models were developed that best predicted More and Less Socialized cats. Measures from these models were used to calculate a point system where more points indicated more socialization. In combination with key socialized behaviors, these points were able to fairly accurately distinguish More Socialized from Less Socialized cats.

Abstract

Animal welfare organizations typically take in cats with unknown levels of socialization towards humans, ranging from unsocialized cats well-socialized but lost pets. Agencies typically determine the socialization status and disposition options of cats within three days, when even a well-socialized pet may be too frightened of the unfamiliar surroundings to display its typical behavior. This is the third part of a three-phase project to develop and evaluate a reliable and valid tool to predict cats’ socialization levels. We recruited cats from the full spectrum of socialization and, using information from the cats’ caregivers regarding typical behavior toward familiar and unfamiliar people, assigned each cat to a Socialization Category. This information was compared to the cats’ behavior during three days of structured assessments conducted in a shelter-like setting. The results of logistic regression modeling generated two models using assessments from the mornings of the second and third day, focusing on predicting shyer or more aloof but socialized cats. Using the coefficients from each of these models, two sets of points were calculated which were useful in differentiating More and Less Socialized cats. In combination with key socialized behaviors, these points were able to fairly accurately identify More and Less Socialized cats.

Personality consistency in dogs: a meta-analysis

Personality, or consistent individual differences in behavior, is well established in studies of dogs. Such consistency implies predictability of behavior, but some recent research suggests that predictability cannot be assumed. In addition, anecdotally, many dog experts believe that ‘puppy tests’ measuring behavior during the first year of a dog's life are not accurate indicators of subsequent adult behavior. Personality consistency in dogs is an important aspect of human-dog relationships (e.g., when selecting dogs suitable for substance-detection work or placement in a family). Here we perform the first comprehensive meta-analysis of studies reporting estimates of temporal consistency of dog personality. A thorough literature search identified 31 studies suitable for inclusion in our meta-analysis. Overall, we found evidence to suggest substantial consistency (r = 0.43). Furthermore, personality consistency was higher in older dogs, when behavioral assessment intervals were shorter, and when the measurement tool was exactly the same in both assessments. In puppies, aggression and submissiveness were the most consistent dimensions, while responsiveness to training, fearfulness, and sociability were the least consistent dimensions. In adult dogs, there were no dimension-based differences in consistency. There was no difference in personality consistency in dogs tested first as puppies and later as adults (e.g., ‘puppy tests’) versus dogs tested first as puppies and later again as puppies. Finally, there were no differences in consistency between working versus non-working dogs, between behavioral codings versus behavioral ratings, and between aggregate versus single measures. Implications for theory, practice, and future research are discussed.

Association of puppies' behavioral reaction at five months of age assessed by questionnaire with their later 'Distraction' at 15 months of age, an important behavioral trait for guide dog qualification

Guide dogs help visually impaired persons both physically and psychologically. More than half of all candidate dogs do not qualify, mainly for behavioral reasons. Improved training efficacy is desirable, and earlier prediction of qualification-related traits would be beneficial. In a previous study, we identified 'Distraction', assessed during the training period, as an important behavioral trait for judging the qualification of guide dogs at the Japan Guide Dog Association. As a second step, we aimed to develop an index that can predict during the puppy period. In this study, candidate guide dogs, 5-month-old Labrador retrievers, were assessed by puppy raisers using a newly developed questionnaire that consisted of 20 items. The same dogs were assessed later, at 15 months, by trainers to determine 'Distraction'. In principal components analysis, nine items, including excitability toward strangers, initiative while out for a walk, and exploration, composed the first principal component (PC1). When we compared PC1 points with 'Distraction' points, the two categories were positively correlated (n=110, r(s)=0.31, P=0.0009). Although the accuracy of the questionnaire should be increased, the results of the present study suggest that it may be possible to assess and predict 'Distraction', which is associated with disqualification for guide dogs, early in the puppy-raising period.