Morphometric measurements of the feet of working donkeys Equus asinus in Egypt

External Hoof Measurements of Untrimmed and Unshod Mules in Northern Thailand

External hoof characteristics, balance, and conformation have been extensively studied in horses; however, mules remain understudied in these aspects. This study evaluated the size, shape, and symmetry of untrimmed and unshod forelimb hooves, compared the symmetry between forelimb hooves and stratified external forelimb hoof measurements based on the body condition score of mules raised in the foothill plains of northern Thailand. The forelimb hooves of 38 mules were photographed and 33 parameters, including angular and linear measurements, were analyzed. A multivariate analysis was used to explore the influence of sex, age, and body condition scores (BCS) on angular, linear, and area parameters. Additionally, one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's test was used to compare these parameters across different BCS groups. Despite the absence of shoeing and trimming, these mules exhibited optimal left-right forelimb hoof symmetry, with no significant (p < 0.05) differences in: outer wall length and inner wall length (OWL-IWL: Left 0.11 ± 0.66 cm; Right -0.12 ± 0.43 cm); sole length and sole width (SLS-SW: Left 1.65 ± 0.76 cm; Right 1.46 ± 0.89 cm); dorsal hoof wall length and heel length (DHWL-HL: Left 4.00 ± 0.80 cm; Right 3.81 ± 0.72 cm); and frog length and frog width (FL-FW: Left 3.88 ± 1.13 cm; Right 3.82 ± 0.18 cm). However, significant (p < 0.05) differences were observed within each body condition score group for forelimb hoof measurements for DHWL, IWL, heel separation (HS), heel bulb distance (HBD), SW, FW, and FL, while sex and age had no significant differences across the study variables. These findings provide valuable insights into mule welfare and management, contributing to understanding of the interplay between overall health and hoof conformation in the study area.

Trialling Locally Made, Low-Cost Bits to Improve Bit-Related Welfare Problems in Cart Horses: Findings from a Study in Senegal

Bits used for cart horses in Senegal are typically made of recovered construction iron and often have defects related to design, shape, fit and metal quality. Consequently, there is widespread presence of bit-related oral injury amongst these equids. It was hypothesised that improving bit design would ameliorate bit-related welfare issues for working cart horses. This study aimed to develop locally made alternative bit prototypes and test their efficacy as less harmful to working horses, and their acceptability to their drivers. Eight animal-based welfare indicators (four physical and four behavioural) were designed to measure positive or negative effects of the new bits. Following a testing phase to appraise and mitigate potential animal welfare risk associated with the alternative bit designs, a total of 540 driver/horse combinations were opportunistically selected across five municipalities in Senegal. Welfare indicators were observed when new bits were introduced and again after 21 weeks of daily use. The results indicated statistically significant improvements in all welfare indicators measured (i.e., lesions on lip commissures, tongue, buccal mucosa and bars; and open mouth, tongue loll, head toss/shake, and head tilt/turn behaviours). None of the drivers reported any difficulty with horse control, nor chose to revert back to their original bits. Whilst acknowledging the limitation of inability to control all potential confounding variables, these preliminary findings suggest the bit itself as an important contributor to oral injury, and the possibility to improve this through alternative bit design that is low-cost, locally produced and acceptable to drivers.

A preliminary assessment of hoof morphometry in a population of lame and non-lame working donkeys in Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Hoof morphometry, conformation and shoeing practices have all been associated with lameness in horses. Hoof morphometry in working donkeys in Pakistan has not been objectively measured.

OBJECTIVES

To quantitatively assess hoof morphology in donkeys, to identify factors underlying hoof morphology, and interrelationships between conformation, lameness, and shoeing status.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

METHODS

Donkeys were assessed in-harness using a modified five-point lameness scale by two veterinarians and digital photographs of front hooves taken alongside a grid. Factor analysis was used to examine the interrelationships among morphometric data. Associations between conformation, shoeing, age and lameness were assessed.

RESULTS

Sixty-one donkeys were examined; 28 were unshod. There were significant left-right hoof asymmetries between heel height (0.27 (Standard Deviation [SD]) 0.92 cm; p=0.02), toe-heel angle (2.97° SD 8.85°; p=0.03) and medio-lateral symmetry (0.5, SD 1.75 cm; p=0.05). Ten percent of donkeys (n=6) were sound and 64% donkeys (n=39) were consistently lame. Conformational defects were seen in 41% (n=25) of donkeys. Eleven factors were extracted, accounting for 83% of the variance encountered in the original variables. Shoeing, and asymmetry between or within feet were not associated with lameness in donkeys; older donkeys were more likely to be lame (P=0.02).

MAIN LIMITATIONS

As a convenience sample of draught donkeys, most of which were lame, the study may not reflect non-pathological hoof morphology in working donkeys. There are no validated objective lameness measures for donkeys and donkeys were in harness when assessed.

CONCLUSION

This study represents a snapshot of hoof morphology and lameness in a single population and under various limitations. Further work should use larger datasets and more homogenous samples to discriminate between 'normal' and 'abnormal' feet and how these might contribute to lameness. Factor analysis highlighted the clustering of hoof morphometric features in donkeys, suggesting the potential for targeted studies in the future. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Relationship Between Body Mass and the Hoof Area: Understanding the Turner's Formula

The equine hoof balance has been the subject of several studies, reflecting the importance of hooves for the good health and performance of these animals. An important condition for the hooves health is its loading, where too much weight in a small area can increase the chances of lameness. Therefore, an equation has been proposed to identify the relationship between body mass and hoof size and has been used in several studies. However, a clear description of how it was developed and what its results really indicate is not available in the literature. In light of this, this article aims to describe this Turner's equation and propose modifications to better characterize the body mass to hoof size ratio for fore- and hindlimbs.

Quantifying the Impact of Mounted Load Carrying on Equids: A Review

Simple Summary

The overloading of equids has become an important issue among veterinarians, trainers, riders, and welfare advocates. Increased weight carrying may have negative effects on biomechanical, physiological, biochemical, and behavioral parameters of equids during exercise, including causing gait asymmetry or lameness. It is important to determine how to carefully quantify the load-carrying capacity of both ridden horses and working equids. There are many options to assess the effect of loading on an animal’s body, but these have been inconsistently applied, making it difficult to reach a consensus, even for horses. This review summarises current knowledge of the load-carrying ability for horses and donkeys and the different parameters used to determine the effect of loading on these equids. Further research is needed to develop evidence-based guidelines for maximum loading in equids. Quantified loading limits or indicators of overloading could be used by stakeholders working with sports and pleasure horses and working equids to limit overloading and to improve the welfare of these animals.

Abstract

There are approximately 112 million working equids in developing countries, many of which are associated with brick kilns. Brick kilns and overloading are associated with welfare problems in working equids. Understanding equids’ abilities and influencing factors are important for both effective performance and welfare. Traditionally, measurement of the amount of ‘bone’ was used, and more recently, gait symmetry has been identified as a potential marker for loading capacity. Assessment of stride parameters and gait kinematics provides insights into adaptations to loading and may help determine cut-off loads. Physiological factors such as the ability to regain normal heart rates shortly after work is an important tool for equine fitness assessment and a more accurate measure of load-carrying capacity than absolute heart rate. Oxidative stress, plasma lactate, and serum creatine kinase activity are reliable biochemical indicators of loading ability. For monitoring stress, salivary cortisol is superior to serum cortisol level for assessment of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and is related to eye temperatures, but this has yet to be interpreted in terms of load-carrying ability in equids. Further research is needed to standardize the evidence-based load-carrying capacity of working horses and donkeys.