Sexuality in cancer and palliative care 1: Effects of disease and treatment

Cardiovascular Responses to Sexual Activity in Able-Bodied Individuals and Those Living with Spinal Cord Injury

Sexuality is an integral part of the human experience and persists in health and disability. The cardiovascular system is crucial to sexual function and can be affected profoundly by spinal cord injury (SCI). The effects of sexual activity on the cardiovascular system in SCI have not been summarized and compared with sexual activity in able-bodied individuals. A keyword search of Embase, PubMed, and Medline was conducted. From 471 retrieved studies for able-bodied individuals, 11 were included that met the strict criteria of medically uncomplicated participants. In the SCI literature, 117 studies were screened, with 18 meeting criteria. In able-bodied persons, sexual activity resulted in modest increases in systolic blood pressure peaking at orgasm (males of 163 mm Hg and females of 142 mm Hg) and returning to baseline shortly afterward. In persons with SCI, results varied from minimal changes to significant elevations in systolic blood pressure because of episodes of autonomic dysreflexia, especially in those with high thoracic and cervical lesions. Peak systolic blood pressure in these individuals was measured to be as high as 325 mm Hg. In the SCI population, more intense stimuli (including penile vibrostimulation and electroejaculation) tended to result in a greater increase in systolic blood pressure compared with self-stimulation. Studies that used continuous versus intermittent monitoring were more likely to report greater changes in systolic blood pressure. In able-bodied persons, sexual activity results in modest increases in blood pressure. In those with SCI, intense stimulation and higher injury levels result in a higher likelihood of autonomic dysreflexia and elevated blood pressure. Because of rapid changes in blood pressure, continuous monitoring is more advantageous than intermittent measurement, because the latter may miss peak values.

The study on evaluation and improvement of quality of life in patients with advanced cancer by China's hospice program

This multicenter study evaluated the quality of life (QOL) of patients with advanced cancer and assessed the improvement in patients' QOL by hospice service program, using McGill Quality of Life Questionnaire-Hong Kong version (MQOL-HK) questionnaire in China's 32 hospice centers from March to June, 2012. Among 640 recruited cases, data of 630 patients were analyzed. Differences in patients' pre- and posthospice QOL were evaluated. Compared to prehospice results, patients' QOL scores improved significantly in physical, psychological, existential, and support domains after 3 weeks of hospice services. Some items were not thus classified primarily due to cross-cultural adaptation. The MQOL-HK questionnaire could effectively measure QOL in Chinese hospice patients and their QOL could be improved by hospice services. Psychological, existential, and support services should be emphasized during patients' initial 3 weeks of hospice admission.

Vaginal dilator therapy for women receiving pelvic radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

Vaginal dilation therapy is advocated after pelvic radiotherapy to prevent stenosis (abnormal narrowing of the vagina), but can be uncomfortable and psychologically distressing.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the benefits and harms of different types of vaginal dilation methods offered to women treated by pelvic radiotherapy for cancer.

SEARCH METHODS

Searches included the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL 2013, Issue 5), MEDLINE (1950 to June week 2, 2013), EMBASE (1980 to 2013 week 24) and CINAHL (1982 to 2013).

SELECTION CRITERIA

Comparative data of any type, which evaluated dilation or penetration of the vagina after pelvic radiotherapy treatment for cancer.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed whether potentially relevant studies met the inclusion criteria. We found no trials and therefore analysed no data.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified no studies for inclusion in the original review or for this update. However, we felt that some studies that were excluded warranted discussion. These included one randomised trial (RCT), which showed no improvement in sexual scores associated with encouraging women to practise dilation therapy; a recent small RCT that did not show any advantage to dilation over vibration therapy during radiotherapy; two non-randomised comparative studies; and five correlation studies. One of these showed that objective measurements of vaginal elasticity and length were not linked to dilation during radiotherapy, but the study lacked power. One study showed that women who dilated tolerated a larger dilator, but the risk of objectivity and bias with historical controls was high. Another study showed that the vaginal measurements increased in length by a mean of 3 cm after dilation was introduced 6 to 10 weeks after radiotherapy, but there was no control group; another case series showed the opposite. Three recent studies showed less stenosis associated with prophylactic dilation after radiotherapy. One small case series suggested that dilation years after radiotherapy might restore the vagina to a functional length.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is no reliable evidence to show that routine, regular vaginal dilation during radiotherapy treatment prevents stenosis or improves quality of life. Several observational studies have examined the effect of dilation therapy after radiotherapy. They suggest that frequent dilation practice is associated with lower rates of self reported stenosis. This could be because dilation is effective or because women with a healthy vagina are more likely to comply with dilation therapy instructions compared to women with strictures. We would normally suggest that a RCT is needed to distinguish between a casual and causative link, but pilot studies highlight many reasons why RCT methodology is challenging in this area.

An integrative review of sexual health issues in advanced incurable disease

The sexual health needs of people with advanced incurable diseases are underexplored and under assessed by health care practitioners and under studied by researchers. The loss of sexual health can impact a person's overall quality of life and well-being. This integrative review of the literature presents the current state of the science and was conducted to identify and summarize publications in the professional literature related to the sexual health needs of people with advanced illness. A systematic search of 18 databases for studies conducted between 1960 and April 2012 in the English language that focused on the sexual health needs of people with life-limiting illnesses was conducted. Findings document that studies regarding the sexual health of patients with life limiting illnesses are generally narrative reviews, expert opinions, or exploratory in nature. Of the 30 possibly relevant abstracts and titles identified, there was only one prospective or case control trial focusing on sexual health in this population thereby offering the practitioner little research evidence to inform clinical practice. Increasing our understanding of the sexual health needs of people facing the end of their lives is crucial if we are to conduct appropriate assessments and initiate relevant treatments. Further prospective research is required to assess and establish the sexual health concerns of people along the disease trajectory of incurable illness as well as those imminently facing the end of their lives.

Knowledge about various contraceptive methods in young women with and without eating disorders

OBJECTIVE

To determine if young women with eating disorders (EDs) have altered views about the risks/benefits of different forms of birth control than the general population.

METHOD

Data was collected using a cross-sectional, survey-based study of postmenarchal women aged 13-25 years with a diagnosed ED (n = 50) or no history of disordered eating patterns (n =57).

RESULTS

Despite having a higher level of education (p = 0.04) and no differences in sexual history (p = 0.16), ED patients were less knowledgeable than controls about the health risks and benefits, effectiveness in preventing HIV, and effectiveness in preventing pregnancy of various methods of birth control (p≤ 0.05).

DISCUSSION

ED patients may be incorrectly presumed to be asexual while working on recovery; physicians may need to take extra time to educate ED patients about their personal risks of unintended pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, and the benefits that different methods of contraception can provide.

Chinese nurses' attitudes and beliefs toward sexuality care in cancer patients

BACKGROUND

The importance of having nurses address patients' sexuality concerns is emphasized by a growing body of literature. Most relevant studies were conducted in Western cultural settings.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to describe Chinese nurses' attitudes and beliefs regarding sexuality care in cancer patients.

METHODS

A descriptive and correlation design was adopted. Data were collected by an inventory of Sexuality Attitudes and Beliefs Survey.

RESULTS

Oncology nurses (n = 199) were recruited from a tumor hospital in China. The study results indicate that most Chinese nurses (76.4%) perceived sexuality as too private an issue to discuss with cancer patients, and 63.8% assumed that most cancer patients lacked interest in sexuality because of their illnesses. The results also show that most nurses (77.9%) did not make time to discuss sexuality issues with patients, and nearly 70% did not feel confident and comfortable discussing cancer patients' sexuality concerns.

CONCLUSION

Helping nurses overcome barriers to addressing patients' sexuality concerns requires a careful assessment of their attitudes and beliefs. This study added insights into Chinese nurses' attitudes and beliefs surrounding the sexuality issues of cancer patients.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

In this study, nurses reported that they were less likely to make time to discuss sexuality issues with cancer patients; thus, future research needs to identify specific factors keeping nurses from incorporating sexuality care into practice. Additionally, most nurses felt less confident and uncomfortable in addressing cancer patients' sexuality concerns. More training related to sexuality care is needed for Chinese nurses.

Addressing sexuality issues of women with gynaecological cancer: Chinese nurses' attitudes and practice

AIM

This paper reports a study conducted to describe Chinese nurses' attitudes and practice in addressing the sexuality concerns of people with gynaecological cancer.

BACKGROUND

Women with gynaecological cancer face numerous challenges to their sexuality. The importance of addressing sexuality concerns of people with cancer is emphasized by a growing body of literature in Western countries.

METHODS

This is a descriptive and correlational study. An inventory was adopted to explore Chinese nurses' attitudes and practice related to sexuality care in nursing. Data were collected from December 2009 to February 2010.

RESULTS

A sample of 202 nurses working in gynaecological units in China was recruited. Study results revealed that the majority (77·7%) held the attitude that 'sexuality is too private an issue to discuss with patients'. Only 34·2%'make time to discuss sexual concerns with patients'. Regression analysis revealed that nurse' marital status and hospital type in which they were working influenced their practice in sexuality care. Nurses' conservative attitudes towards sexuality, their prejudices about gynaecological cancer, the lack of availability of private environment, the lack of sexuality care training and the failure to include sexuality care in routine nursing care, were found to be factors that significantly influenced sexual care and nursing practice (adjusted R(2) = 0·542, P < 0·001).

CONCLUSIONS

The study findings contribute to the understanding of Chinese nurses' attitudes and practice in addressing the sexuality concerns of people with gynaecological cancer. There is a need to increase Chinese nurses' awareness of their roles and the importance of equipping themselves with relevant skills in sexuality care in nursing practice.

Sexuality in Patients With Advanced Cancer: A Prospective Study in a Population Admitted to an Acute Pain Relief and Palliative Care Unit

The aim of this study was to characterize sexuality attitudes and feelings in a larger sample of patients with advanced cancer in comparison with their previous status before diagnosis. Of the 100 patients randomized, 65 patients answered to all the questions included in the questionnaire. Of these 65, 25 patients were male and 40 were female, with a mean Karnofsky of 58 (range 40-70) and a mean well-being sensation of 5.67 (range 2-10). In all, 60% of patients did not feel to be less attractive after disease, 30% of patients a little, and only 10% very much. Most patients (86.4%) considered important to talk about sexuality and to face such an issue with skilled people. About half of the patients (47%) reported that sexuality was very important for psychological well-being. Only 7.6% of patients had a good sexual intercourse, 15.2% had a light activity, 39.4% had an insufficient activity, and 37.8% did not have any activity. A significant relationship was observed with age (0.002), Karfnosky status (P = .024), and well-being (P = .004). Only 12.1% of patients had a good sexual satisfaction, 12.1% experienced a mild satisfaction, 30.3% had insufficient satisfaction, and 45.5% had no sexual satisfaction. The difference was significant (P < .001). A significant relationship was observed with age (.047), Karfnosky status (P = .001), and well-being (P = .009). Only 3% of patients had a good frequency, 7.6% had a mild frequency, 37.9% had a limited frequency, and 51.5% had no sexual intercourses (P = .01). Emotional aspects maintained a relevant role in sexuality, as in 50% of patients these aspects were very important and for 12.1% important. Despite sexual activities decreased after the development of cancer, most patients considered important to talk about sexuality and to face such an issue with some experienced operators. Moreover, some patients were still able to maintain a sufficient sexual activity, in terms of quality and quantity. The emotional aspects had a relevant role in sexuality, possibly as a surrogate of impeded physical activity. The data gathered from this survey reveal how much sexuality continues to be present even though in different formality (satisfaction during the relationships) and different times (frequency of the relationships) in the life of the patients with advanced cancer.

Sex, Drugs, and Rock ‘n’ Roll: Caring for Adolescents and Young Adults With Cancer

Adolescents and young adults (AYAs) with cancer are a distinct group whose needs have been poorly addressed within health care systems. This imbalance is being addressed in some countries, and this growing specialty is now receiving the recognition it requires in order to develop further. This article discusses some of the psychosocial issues of AYAs and, with reference to the phrase of sex, drugs, and rock and roll, highlights the various rites of passage that young people experience. It also discusses how services and professionals can work alongside AYAs, enabling them to feel a part of the process by providing age-appropriate environment and expertise.

Vaginal dilator therapy for women receiving pelvic radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

Many vaginal dilator therapy guidelines advocate routine vaginal dilation during and after pelvic radiotherapy to prevent stenosis (abnormal narrowing of the vagina). The UK Gynaecological Oncology Nurse Forum recommend dilation "three times weekly for an indefinite time period". The UK patient charity Cancer Backup advises using vaginal dilators from two to eight weeks after the end of radiotherapy treatment. Australian guidelines recommend dilation after brachytherapy "as soon as is comfortably possible" and "certainly within four weeks and to continue for three years or indefinitely if possible". However, dilation is intrusive, uses health resources and can be psychologically distressing. It has also caused rare but very serious damage to the rectum.

OBJECTIVES

To review the benefits and harms of vaginal dilation therapy associated with pelvic radiotherapy for cancer.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Searches included the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library 2008, Issue 4), MEDLINE (1950 to 2008), EMBASE (1980 to 2008) and CINAHL (1982 to 2008).

SELECTION CRITERIA

Any comparative randomised controlled trials (RCT) or data of any type which compared dilation or penetration of the vagina after pelvic radiotherapy treatment for cancer.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The review authors independently abstracted data and assessed risk of bias. We analysed the mean difference in sexual function scores and the risk ratio for non-compliance at six weeks and three months in single trial analyses. No trials met the inclusion criteria.

MAIN RESULTS

Dilation during or immediately after radiotherapy can, in rare cases, cause damage and there is no persuasive evidence from any study to demonstrate that it prevents stenosis. Data from one RCT showed no improvement in sexual scores in women who were encouraged to practice dilation. Two case series and one comparative study using historical controls suggest that dilation might be associated with a longer vaginal length but these data cannot reasonably be interpreted to show that dilation caused the change in the vagina.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Routine dilation during or soon after cancer treatment may be harmful. There is no reliable evidence to show that routine regular vaginal dilation during or after radiotherapy prevents the late effects of radiotherapy or improves quality of life. Gentle vaginal exploration might separate the vaginal walls before they can stick together and some women may benefit from dilation therapy once inflammation has settled but there are no good comparative supporting data.

Nurses' knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding provision of sexual health care in patients with cancer: critical review of the evidence

BACKGROUND

The experience of living with cancer is associated with a variety of consequences in several central aspects of a patient's quality of life, including intimacy, body image, human relationships, sexuality, and fertility. Despite their importance, incidence, and impact on psychosocial well-being, sexual health care (SHC) is a matter not frequently dealt with by nurses in daily practice.

GOALS OF WORK

The purpose of this study was to gather evidence regarding knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of oncology nurses toward sexual health issues and to identify salient and latent key factors which influence provision of SHC in the context of cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A critical review of the literature was conducted over a period of three decades and 18 original research articles were retrieved and analyzed.

RESULTS

A comprehensive data analysis revealed that, although oncology nurses hold relatively liberal attitudes and recognize provision of sexual health care as an important nursing role, they possess limited sexual knowledge and communication skills, while often avoid or fail to effectively respond to patients' sexual concerns. Nine possible influential key factors have been studied: incorrect assumptions toward sexual issues, comfort, sexual knowledge, professional nursing role, patient- and nurse-related issues, work environment-related issues, continuing education activities, and society-related factors. Conflicting findings are reported.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of the present study propose that there is an evident need of dispelling the myths about sexual health in cancer care. Besides, continuing education activities and availability of education materials could assist nurses to adequately address sexual concerns while caring for patients with cancer.

Intimacy and sexuality after cancer: a critical review of the literature

Experiencing a diagnosis of cancer may dramatically alter the way a person feels about themselves, their body, and their significant relationships with others at sexual and intimate levels. The purpose of this article is to provide a critical analysis of the way patient sexuality and intimacy has been constructed throughout cancer and palliative care literature. A critique of 3 well-cited communication frameworks for health professionals: the PLISSIT, ALARM, and BETTER models, will be offered. In summary, a dominant emphasis throughout the literature explores the narrow relationship between cancer treatments and the impact of those treatments on patient sexual function or dysfunction, so that patient sexuality and intimacy are inextricably limited to fertility, contraception, menopausal, erectile functional, or capacity for intercourse. Few studies explore sexual or intimate issues that have arisen in the face of life-threatening illness, particularly when patients are older than 65 years. Despite being well cited during the past 30 years, the PLISSIT and ALARM counseling models are outdated in terms of more reflective, patient-centered, and negotiated forms of communication promoted throughout clinical practice guidelines and patient feedback in qualitative research. The BETTER communication model provides a significant step in assessing and documenting the patient's experience of sexuality after cancer.

Dealing sensitively with sexuality in a palliative care context

Sexuality is integral to a person's identity and is encompassed in holistic palliative care. Current directives emphasize psychosocial support that is sensitive to a variety of issues, including sexuality, and offer community nurses the mandate to facilitate expressing sexuality. Nurses fail to address sexuality for a variety of reasons. Appreciating patients' individuality and avoiding making assumptions are some of the requirements to enabling expression of sexuality. Nurses need wisdom and determination to discuss such issues, and it is important that they recognize opportunities and cues as they arise. This article provides an examination of the issues surrounding sexuality outlining an approach that captures' constant attention to details. This guides the 'what', 'how' and 'why' sexuality in palliative care can be addressed. Ethics and safety aspects are briefly discussed and implications for practice suggested. Educating staff and focused education for the patient can positively influence sexuality and individuals' quality of life.

Issues of intimacy and sexuality in the face of cancer: the patient perspective

Experiencing a diagnosis of cancer has the potential to dramatically alter the way in which a person experiences intimate and sexual aspects of their lives. This article draws on data from a larger study into issues of intimacy and sexuality from the perspectives of patients and health professionals in cancer and palliative care. A 3-stage reflexive inquiry involved semistructured participant interviews (n = 82), textual analysis of national and international clinical practice guidelines (n = 33), and participant feedback at 15 patient and health professional educational forums. This article will present the analysis of 50 patient interviews, which showed 5 clusters of responses to a cancer diagnosis: "focus on survival," "trust in health professional," "desire for choices," "search for normality," and "need for negotiated communication." Most patients were searching for a reflexive, patient-centered and negotiated style of communication from the health professional of their choice, at a time and in a manner that suited their individual needs. Many patients were disappointed by the lack of information, support, and practical strategies provided by health professionals to assist them to live with the sexual and intimate changes they had experienced in the face of a life-limiting disease. Implications for nursing practice are discussed.

Constructions of sexuality and intimacy after cancer: Patient and health professional perspectives

With an increasing emphasis on the provision of psychosocial support for patients in cancer and palliative care, an emerging body of literature has highlighted the importance of providing the opportunity for patients to discuss issues of intimacy and sexuality with their health professionals. Very little is known about why health professionals struggle with this level of communication in clinical practice. The aim of this paper is to discuss constructions of intimacy and sexuality in cancer and palliative care from patient and health professional perspectives. A three stage reflexive inquiry was used to systematically and critically analyse data from semi-structured interviews (n=82), a textual analysis of 33 national and international clinical practice guidelines and participant feedback at 15 forums where preliminary research findings were presented to patients and health professionals in cancer and palliative care. The study was conducted across one public teaching hospital in Australia from 2002 to 2005. Data were further analysed drawing upon the work of Giddens on reflexivity, intimacy and sexuality, to reveal that the majority of health professionals embraced a less reflexive, more medicalised approach about patient issues of intimacy and sexuality after cancer. This was in stark contrast to the expectations of patients. Cancer had interrupted their sense of self, including how they experienced changes to intimate and sexual aspects of their lives, irrespective of their age, gender, culture, type of cancer or partnership status. Key findings from this project reveal incongruence between the way patients and health professionals constructed sexuality and intimacy. Structures which govern cancer and palliative care settings perpetrated the disparity and made it difficult for health professionals to regard patients as people with sexual and intimate needs or to express their own vulnerability when communicating about these issues in the clinical practice setting. A degree of reflexivity about personal and professional constructions of sexuality and intimacy was required for health professionals to confidently challenge these dominant forces and engage in the type of communication patients were seeking.

Sexual Dysfunction in Patients with Gynecologic Neoplasms: A Retrospective Pilot Study

INTRODUCTION

Little is known regarding the impact of a sexual health program on the sexual functioning of patients with a history of a gynecologic malignancy.

AIM

To evaluate as a pilot study the prevalence of common sexual health symptoms and evaluate the effects and compliance with clinical recommendations in gynecologic oncology patients.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of 259 female cancer patients who attended a survivorship program at an academic medical center from March 1, 2003 through December 31, 2004. Patients received symptomatic treatment recommendations including hormone therapy alternatives, psychosexual counseling, minimally absorbed vaginal estrogen suppositories, and vaginal dilators.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Patient self-report of the severity of sexual symptomology at follow-up visit.

RESULTS

Ninety-six patients (37%) had gynecologic neoplasms and the most common gynecologic malignancy seen was ovarian (27%). Median age at initial visit was 51 years (range 25-76) and 88 patients (92%) were postmenopausal. The most frequent presenting complaint encountered was dyspareunia (72%), atrophic vaginitis (65%), hypoactive desire (43%), and orgasmic dysfunction (17%). At a median of 6 months (range 0-20), 60 patients (63%) received follow-up, and of them 42 (70%) self-reported improvement in their symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The establishment of a well-structured sexual health program in a cancer setting can result in a 63% compliance rate with a 70% subjective improvement in sexual health complaints. Further research with objective measures of sexual dysfunction is needed to better evaluate patients' progress in this setting.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH—WOMAN'S SEXUAL HEALTH: Prevalence of Psychiatric Illness in Women in an Oncology Sexual Health Population: A Retrospective Pilot Study

INTRODUCTION

Oncology patients often present to healthcare providers with a history of pre-existing psychiatric conditions. Associated treatments are well known to impact sexual functioning. The identification of these confounding conditions and medications is an integral part of the comprehensive management of sexual dysfunction in oncology patients.

AIM

To report the prevalence of psychiatric diagnoses and agents in an oncology sexual health clinic.

METHODS

A retrospective review was performed using 204 sequential charts of patients who attended the Sexual Health Program at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center from March 2003 through August 2004.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

All patients were evaluated by a sexual medicine gynecologist and received an extensive medical history, psychosexual assessment, and a focused gynecologic examination.

RESULTS

Fourteen patients (7%) did not have cancer and were excluded from further analysis. Of the remaining 190 patients, the median age at initial visit was 48 years (range 22-76) and the majority of patients were menopausal (87%). The most common diagnosis was breast cancer (44%). One hundred twenty-eight patients (67%) had prior pelvic surgery and 43 (23%) had prior pelvic radiation. The most frequently encountered sexual complaints were dyspareunia (65%), vaginal dryness (63%), hypoactive desire disorder (46%), and orgasmic dysfunction (7%). At initial presentation, 52 patients (27%) reported having a prior or concurrent psychiatric diagnosis and 72 (38%) were taking an anti-depressant and/or an anxiolytic. Treatment recommendations for sexual dysfunction consisted of psychosexual counseling, psychiatric referral, vaginal moisturizers and lubricants, hormonal therapy with minimally absorbed vaginal estrogen suppositories, vaginal dilators, and/or skilled exercise.

CONCLUSION

Psychiatric conditions are commonly encountered in the oncology population as are the medications to treat them. Because it is well established that these medications are often implicated in sexual dysfunction, further research is needed to determine the mechanism of action within the desire pathway of the cancer patient and treatment of such disorders.

Sexuality in multiple sclerosis

Sexuality and partnership have an important influence on the quality of life of every person and also on people with chronic disorders such as multiple sclerosis. The findings in literature show high evidence that people with multiple sclerosis experience high levels of sexual dysfunction, most of them with hypoactive sexual behaviour often associated with dissatisfaction in relationship, and also the partners seem to show lower sexual and partnership satisfaction. The most common problems in women are lack of sexual interest and decreased libido, often with problems in orgasmic capacity, while men report erectile dysfunction and also lack of sexual interest. The impact of the level of disability and duration of the illness remains unclear. Positive familial support can often help the patient in coping with the illness, nonetheless problems with changing roles and multiple-sclerosis-minimizing can improve the need of contacts to outstanding persons.

Enhancing quality of life in medical populations: a vision for body image assessment and rehabilitation as standards of care

This article presents a vision and framework for establishing body image assessment and rehabilitation as a standard of care for patients with medical disorders. Making this vision a reality depends upon: (1) a thorough understanding of the body image construct; (2) application of many new forms of body image assessment; (3) refined understanding of body image disorder and dysfunction in the context of medical conditions; and (4) a clear plan to implement and evaluate prevention, rehabilitation, and treatment programs. Applying the many important developments that have occurred in body image theory, assessment, and intervention over the past decade holds promise for enhancing the quality of life of many individuals with medical conditions.

A patient-centred approach to sexuality in the face of life-limiting illness

Sexuality is intrinsic to a person's sense of self and can be an intimate form of communication that helps relieve suffering and lessens the threat to personhood in the face of life-limiting illness. Health professionals struggle to accept that people with life-limiting illness, especially older people, continue to be sexual beings. People facing life-limiting illness may appreciate the opportunity to discuss issues of sexuality and intimacy with a trusted health professional. Practical strategies to assist health professionals to communicate effectively about sexuality and intimacy include creating a conducive atmosphere, initiating the topic, using open-ended questions and a non-judgmental approach, and avoiding medical jargon.

Important aspects of health care for women with gynecologic cancer

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES

To describe what women diagnosed with primary gynecologic cancer reported to be important during their interaction with the healthcare system.

DESIGN

Qualitative.

SETTING

A specialized gynecologic cancer care unit in central Sweden.

SAMPLE

14 women diagnosed with primary gynecologic cancer were recruited. The women had been referred to the specialized care unit for radiation or cytostatic therapy.

METHODS

Tape-recorded interviews were transcribed, coded, categorized, and analyzed.

MAIN RESEARCH VARIABLES

Primary diagnosed women with cancer and their experience with quality of care during diagnosis and treatment.

FINDINGS

Three partly overlapping categories (i.e., optimal care, good communication, and self-image and sexuality) were found to be of central importance in quality of health care. Participants stated that health care should be based on their own perceptions of the need for information and dialogue and how the disease and treatment would affect their health, self-image, and sexuality. Everyday conversations also were very important.

CONCLUSIONS

Central importance in health care for the women included both rational and human aspects. The primary need of participants was to achieve a rapid cure, which necessitated health care that was available, competent, and coordinated.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING

Women with gynecologic cancer should be given individualized information and care to satisfy their individual needs and reinforce their self-image. Nurses have an important role in strengthening women's feelings of hope and supporting them in maintaining as positive a self-image as possible. Information and everyday conversation are of great significance. Sexuality should be an integral part of holistic care; to this end, inclusion of each woman's sexual partner may be helpful when discussions concerning sexuality occur.