A decision tree algorithm to identify predictors of post-stroke complex regional pain syndrome

This prospective cohort study aimed to identify the risk factors for post-stroke complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) using a decision tree algorithm while comprehensively assessing upper limb and lower limb disuse and physical inactivity. Upper limb disuse (Fugl-Meyer assessment of upper extremity [FMA-UE], Action Research Arm Test, Motor Activity Log), lower limb disuse (Fugl-Meyer Assessment of lower extremity [FMA-LE]), balance performance (Berg balance scale), and physical inactivity time (International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form [IPAQ-SF]) of 195 stroke patients who visited the Kishiwada Rehabilitation Hospital were assessed at admission. The incidence of post-stroke CRPS was 15.4% in all stroke patients 3 months after admission. The IPAQ, FMA-UE, and FMA-LE were extracted as risk factors for post-stroke CRPS. According to the decision tree algorithm, the incidence of post-stroke CRPS was 1.5% in patients with a short physical inactivity time (IPAQ-SF < 635), while it increased to 84.6% in patients with a long inactivity time (IPAQ-SF ≥ 635) and severe disuse of upper and lower limbs (FMA-UE score < 19.5; FMA-LE score < 16.5). The incidence of post-stroke CRPS may increase with lower-limb disuse and physical inactivity, in addition to upper-limb disuse. Increasing physical activity and addressing lower- and upper-limb motor paralysis may reduce post-stroke CRPS.

Prevalence and predisposing factors of post-stroke complex regional pain syndrome: Retrospective case-control study

INTRODUCTION

Poststroke complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is an important complication in stroke survivors. The identification of factors associated with post-stroke CRPS is important for preventive measures and early diagnosis.

METHODS

A total of 141 first-ever stroke survivors in the subacute stage were retrospectively analyzed. Demographic data, diagnosis time, duration of hospitalization, location of brain lesion, etiology, comorbidities, and blood test findings were investigated. Clinical data included Medical Research Council (MRC) grade, Fugl-Meyer assessment (FMA), National Institute for Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS), Berg Balance Scale (BBS).

RESULTS

Among 141 patients with subacute stroke, 22 were diagnosed with CRPS, with a prevalence of 15.6 %. The mean time to diagnosis was 38.6 (±16.5) days. The prevalence according to the degree of paralysis was 33.3 % in MRC grades 0 and 1, 8.6 % in grade 2, and 0 % in grade 3 or higher. The incidence rates within 1 month after stroke were 1.42 % and 22.47 % between 1 and 3 months after stroke, respectively. The independent risk factors for CRPS were hospitalization duration and FMA, NIHSS, and BBS scores. The sensitivity and specificity of the NIHSS score for predicting post-stroke CRPS were 86.4 % and 59.7 %, respectively, with an optimal cutoff value of 7.5.

CONCLUSIONS

CRPS of the affected upper limb in stroke patients is associated with stroke severity, including paralysis, and the incidence increases over time during the subacute phase. Additionally, having sufficient strength to move through a full range of motion against gravity had a protective effect against CRPS.

An investigation of upper extremity function, sleep quality, and functional independence in patients with poststroke shoulder pain: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Poststroke shoulder pain (PSSP) is a common poststroke complication. Even though it is a common phenomenon, it is unclear how it impacts the patient's life.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the differences in upper extremity function, sleep quality, and functional independence between patients with and without PSSP.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 63 participants with stroke (32 patients with PSSP and 31 patients without PSSP). Shoulder pain was evaluated with a Visual Analog Scale and the participants were divided into two groups as those with and without PSSP. The upper extremity function was assessed with the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand Questionnaire, the Arm Motor Ability Test, and the Nine Hole Peg Test. Sleep quality was assessed with Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and the functional independence was assessed with the Functional Independence Measure. All data were analyzed using the program IBM SPSS Statistics 22.0. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the non-normally distributed parameters, and the Chi-square test was used to compare the ordinal variables. The Spearman correlation test was used for the relationship and a linear regression test was used for regression.

RESULTS

Upper extremity function decreased (p < .05), only the sleep disturbance sub-parameter of sleep quality increased (p = .01), and functional independence increased in patients with PSSP (p < .001). There was a moderate relationship between pain and upper extremity function and a fair relationship between pain and sleep quality (use of sleep medications, daytime dysfunction sub-parameters) (p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

PSSP impairs upper extremity functions, which play an important role in activities of daily living, and reduces functional independence. These results suggest that it is important to evaluate shoulder pain and examine the factors affecting pain in the rehabilitation of patients with stroke.

Stellate Ganglion Block for Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Treatment After SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine: A Case Report

Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is a poorly understood neuropathic pain syndrome that may have different etiologies. Reports of this syndrome after vaccination are rare. We report a female patient with a medical history of acute stroke of the right carotid artery in the previous four months who developed hyperalgesia, allodynia, edema, and color changes in the upper left member compatible with CRPS one day after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. A multimodal therapeutic approach was adopted, including a stellate ganglion block, with favorable results, including pain score reduction and increased mobility of the affected member.

Prevalence, risk factor and outcome in middle-aged and elderly population affected by hemiplegic shoulder pain: An observational study

Background

Hemiplegic shoulder pain is the most common complication after stroke. It usually occurs during the critical period of stroke recovery and hinders the rehabilitation of upper extremity motor function. However, there are few studies on the risk factors, the development and prognosis of shoulder pain after stroke.

Objectives

This study aimed to observe the prevalence of post-stroke shoulder pain in the middle-aged and elderly population, find out the risk factors for post-stroke shoulder pain, and explore its effect on stroke outcome.

Methods

Eligible patients with hemiplegic shoulder pain in the rehabilitation unit were recruited and followed up at 2 and 4 months. The basic clinical information including age, gender, hypertension and atrial fibrillation history, stroke types, stroke location was recorded. Range of motion for shoulder, glenohumeral subluxation, muscle tension, activity of daily living of upper limb were measured. Data from blood test and shoulder ultrasonography were collected.

Results

480 stroke patients were screened within 1 year, and 239 patients were included in the statistical analysis. The prevalence of hemiplegic shoulder pain was 55.6% (133/239) at admission, 59.4% (142/239) after 2 months, and 55.1% (130/236) after 4 months. We found that shoulder pain was more likely to occur in women, patients with large-area stroke, increased tension of biceps brachii or triceps brachii, subluxation and limited passive range of motion of the shoulder. And the ability of daily living of patients with shoulder pain was significantly lower than that of patients without shoulder pain. Shoulder ultrasonography showed that the most common lesion in patients with shoulder pain was supraspinatus tendon thickening, and the thickness of supraspinatus tendon in the hemiplegic side of patients with shoulder pain was significantly higher than that of unaffected side. In addition, the hospitalization rate of patients with shoulder pain after 2 months and 4 months was significantly higher than that without shoulder pain.

Conclusions

Hemiplegic shoulder pain has a high prevalence and can last for several months. Multiple risk factors are involved. Moreover, hemiplegic shoulder pain affects the readmission rate of patients. Therefore, we should pay more attention to this problem in our clinical work. The application of various means to relieve shoulder pain will be conducive to the recovery of upper limb motor function and shorten the in-hospital rehabilitation time.

Modern Principles of Diagnosis and Treatment in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome

BACKGROUND

Background: Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is a relatively common complication, occurring in 5% of cases after injury or surgery, particularly in the limbs. The incidence of CPRS is around 5-26/100 000. The latest revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11) now categorizes CRPS as a primary pain condition of multifactorial origin, rather than a disease of the skeletal system or the autonomic nervous system.

METHODS

Method: Based on a selective search of the literature, we summarize current principles for the diagnosis and treatment of CRPS.

RESULTS

Results: Regional findings in CRPS are accompanied by systemic symptoms, especially by neurocognitive disorders of body perception and of symptom processing. The therapeutic focus is shifting from predominantly passive peripheral measures to early active treatments acting both centrally and peripherally. The treatment is centered on physiotherapy and occupational therapy to improve sensory perception, strength, (fine) motor skills, and sensorimotor integration/ body perception. This is supported by stepped psychological interventions to reduce anxiety and avoidance behavior, medication to decrease inflammation and pain, passive physical measures for reduction of edema and of pain, and medical aids to improve functioning in daily life. Interventional procedures should be limited to exceptional cases and only be performed in specialized centers. Spinal cord and dorsal root ganglion stimulation, respectively, are the interventions with the best evidence.

CONCLUSION

Conclusion: The modern principles for the diagnosis and treatment of CRPS consider both, physiological and psychological mechanisms, with the primary goal of restoring function and participation. More research is needed to strengthen the evidence base in this field.

Post-Stroke Complex Regional Pain Syndrome and Upper Limb Inactivity in Hemiplegic Patients: A Cross-Sectional Study

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of post-stroke complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) and to examine the characteristics of inactivity status of the upper limb in post-stroke CRPS patients. In addition, as a sub-analysis, the association between the upper limb inactivity status and pain intensity was investigated in post-stroke CRPS patients.

Patients and Methods

This cross-sectional study included 102 patients with first-ever stroke between April 2019 and February 2020. Each patient was allocated into one of two groups based on the presence or absence of CRPS. Demographic data (age, sex, stroke etiology, lesion side, and number of days since stroke onset) were collected. The following evaluations were performed in all patients: Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA), Action Research Arm Test (ARAT), and Motor Activity Log (MAL). The numerical rating scale (NRS) to determine pain intensity was assessed only in patients with post-stroke CRPS.

Results

Nineteen and 83 patients were assigned to the post-stroke CRPS and control group, respectively. The prevalence of post-stroke CRPS was 18.6% (19/102). FMA, ARAT, and MAL scores were significantly lower in patients with post-stroke CRPS than those without it. FMA and ARAT scores were significantly correlated with NRS scores, but MAL was almost zero-scored in patients with post-stroke CRPS.

Conclusion

The study results indicated that activity status of the affected upper limb was severely deteriorated, and more inactivity of the upper limb was associated with higher pain intensity in patients with post-stroke CRPS. Thus, our results suggest that post-stroke CRPS may be influenced by the degree of upper limb inactivity after stroke.

Possible complex regional pain syndrome following SARS-CoV-2 infection: Case report

SARS-CoV-2 infection has various manifestations including neurological and musculoskeletal system involvement. COVID-19 infection causes peripheral nerve lesions including small fibre neuropathy. Complex regional pain syndrome is a debilitating neurological condition manifested by predominantly pain associated with other sensory, motor, autonomic and tropic involvement. Identification and early treatment of CRPS has better prognosis. Here, we report a 21-year-old woman presented with pain, hyperalgesia, and swelling of left upper and lower limb following SARS-CoV-2 infection managed as possible complex regional pain syndrome.

Prevalence and Related Factors for Poststroke Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of poststroke complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) to estimate related factors for poststroke CRPS in patients with first-ever stroke.

DESIGN

This was a retrospective cross-sectional cohort study of adult patients (age >18y) with stroke who were admitted to rehabilitation unit from December 2014 to May 2018 in Korea.

SETTING

Single acute rehabilitation unit of university hospital.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants (N=313) diagnosed with first-ever stroke were identified from the stroke rehabilitation registry of our institute.

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Prevalence of poststroke CRPS based on clinical features and 3-phase bone scintigraphy and the related factors of poststroke CRPS.

RESULTS

A total of 313 records were analyzed, including demographic, clinical characteristics, and functional variables. Poststroke CRPS was found in 8.94% (28 of 313) patients with first-ever stroke. Logistic regression analysis showed that Fugl Meyer Assessment of Upper Extremity (FMA-UE) score was a significant associated factor for the presence of CRPS (odds ratio, 0.96; 95% confidence interval, 0.94-0.98; P=.003). The cutoff value of 76 points for FMA-UE score yielded moderate accuracy in identifying of poststroke CRPS (92.6% sensitivity, 65.8% specificity, and 0.85 area under the curve).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of poststroke CRPS was 8.94% in patients with first-ever stroke. The FMA-UE score was associated with the poststroke CRPS. Therefore, in patients with low FMA-UE score, prevention and high suspicion of post-stroke CRPS is necessary.

Functional pain disorders - more than nociplastic pain

BACKGROUND

Nociplastic pain has been recently introduced as a third mechanistic descriptor of pain arising primarily from alterations of neural processing, in contrast to pain due to tissue damage leading to nociceptor activation (nociceptive) or due to lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system (neuropathic). It is characterized by hyperalgesia and allodynia, inconsistency and reversibility, as well as dynamic cross-system interactions with biological and psychobehavioral factors. Along with this renewed understanding, functional pain disorders, also classified as chronic primary pain, are being reframed as biopsychosocial conditions that benefit from multimodal treatment.

OBJECTIVE

To summarize the current understanding of nociplastic pain and functional pain disorders, with a focus on conditions that are common in neurology practice.

METHODS

This was a narrative literature review.

RESULTS

Chronic back pain, fibromyalgia syndrome and complex regional pain syndrome are best understood within a biopsychosocial framework of pain perception that considers structural factors (predispositions and sequelae) and psychobehavioral mechanisms. Although pain is often the primary complaint, it should not be the only focus of treatment, as accompanying symptoms such as sleep or mood problems can significantly impact quality of life and offer useful leverage points for multimodal treatment. Analgesic pharmacotherapy is rarely helpful on its own, and should always be imbedded in a multidisciplinary setting.

Acute effects of contrast bath on sympathetic skin response in patients with poststroke complex regional pain syndrome

PURPOSE

Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is one of the common complications in stroke patients. Sympathetic dysfunction is usually considered underlying pathology. The evidence for contrast bath (CB) used in the treatment of CRPS is limited. The aim of the study is to investigate the possible effects of CB on the sympathetic activity in poststroke CRPS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Stroke patients with CRPS (CRPS group) and without CRPS (control group) were included in the study. Age, gender, duration of stroke, aetiology, plegic side, dominant hand, spasticity level, Brunnstrom stages, and comorbidities were recorded. CB was performed for one session to the plegic side of the CRPS and control groups. Sympathetic skin responses (SSR) was recorded from the plegic and healthy hands of participants at pre-CB and post-CB.

RESULTS

Each group consisted of 20 participants. No significant difference was detected in stroke duration, aetiology, and Brunnstrom stages between groups. Elbow spasticity level was significantly higher in CRPS group (p = .034). SSR amplitudes of plegic hands were significantly decreased after CB in CRPS and control groups (p = .0002, p = .013 respectively). Also, CB reduced the SSR amplitude of healty side in CRPS group (p = .003). There was no statistically significant change in SSR latency or percentage changes of SSR amplitude and latency after CB in both groups.

CONCLUSION

CB leads to a significant reduction in sympathetic activity of plegic side of stroke patients. Also, CB to the plegic side has an inhibitory effect on sympathetic activity of healty side in poststroke CRPS. ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT04198532.

Poststroke shoulder pain in subacute patients and its correlation with upper limb recovery after robotic or conventional treatment: A secondary analysis of a multicenter randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Poststroke shoulder pain is a common complication. We aimed to investigate the prevalence of poststroke shoulder pain, with attention to the neuropathic component, and the relationship between poststroke shoulder pain and upper limb improvement in motor function, strength, disability, and quality of life after upper limb rehabilitation.

METHODS

This is a secondary analysis of a multicenter randomized controlled trial to compare upper limb conventional or robotic rehabilitation on 224 patients enrolled in eight rehabilitation centers. We assessed poststroke shoulder pain (using the Numerical Rating Scale and the Douleur Neuropathique 4), and upper limb motor function, strength, disability, and quality of life at baseline (T0), after 30 rehabilitation sessions (T1), and three months after the end of rehabilitation (T2).

RESULTS

A moderate/severe poststroke shoulder pain was reported by 28.9% of patients, while 19.6% of them showed a neuropathic component. At T0, the intensity of pain was higher in women and in patients with neglect syndrome, positively correlated with the time since stroke and disability and negatively correlated with motor function, strength, and the physical aspects of the quality of life.Moderate/severe pain and neuropathic component significantly reduced after both treatments and this reduction was maintained at T2. Finally, the intensity of pain at baseline was negatively correlated with the improvement of upper limb motor function.

CONCLUSIONS

Poststroke shoulder pain negatively impact on motor performance, strength, disability, and physical aspects of the quality of life as well as on upper limb motor recovery; however, it can be reduced after a robotic or a conventional rehabilitation. Therefore, we suggest considering poststroke shoulder pain when planning the rehabilitation intervention.

Post-stroke complex regional pain syndrome and related factors: Experiences from a tertiary rehabilitation center

OBJECTIVE

In this study, it is aimed to determine the risk factors associated with CRPS after stroke and the clinical parameters of the patients and the treatment agents used for CPRS METHOD: 213 hemiplegic patients with CRPS diagnosed in Group 1 and 213 hemiplegic patients without CRPS in group 2 (control group) were included in the study designed retrospectively. Demographic data of the patients, Brunnstrom stage, Modified Ashworth scale, Barthel index were recorded from patients files. Associated risk faktors with CRPS such as Shoulder subluxation, adhesive capsulitis, fracture, deep vein thrombosis, spasticity, neglect, visual field defect, heterotopic ossification, entrapment neuropathies, brachial plexus damage, pressure wound, lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI), urinary tract infection, epilepsy, and depression were questioned. In addition, clinical findings, medical treatments, and physical therapy agents used were recorded.

RESULTS

The average age of the participants was 67.9 ± 10.3 in group 1 and 66.1 ± 9.9 in group 2. According to the multivariate logistic regression analysis, the presence of the duration of hemiplegi, the duration of hospitalization, shoulder subluxation, soft tissue lesion, adhesive capsulitis, spasticity, entrapment neuropathy, brachial plexus ınjury, protein energy malnutrition, LRTI, urinary infection, depression, coronary artery disease were significantly increased the development of CRPS (p<0.05). As a clinical parameter, edema was present in 95.3% of the patients, while trophic change was the lowest in 1.9%. While sensory reeducation was used in all patients in physical therapy, ganglion blockade was the lowest with 0.9% of patients. In medical treatment, the use of oral paracetamol was 28.2%, while the use of gabapentin was the last with 8.9%.

CONCLUSIONS

In our study, the risk factors of CRPS after hemiplegia, which are as important as its treatment, as well as its diagnosis and prevention, are shown.

Complex Regional Pain Syndrome of Non-hemiplegic Upper Limb in a Stroke Patient: A Case Report

Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) type I in stroke patients is usually known to affect the hemiplegic upper limb. We report a case of CRPS presented in an ipsilesional arm of a 72-year-old female patient after an ischemic stroke at the left middle cerebral artery territory. Clinical signs such as painful range of motion and hyperalgesia of her left upper extremity, swollen left hand, and dystonic posture were suggestive of CRPS. A three-phase bone scintigraphy showed increased uptake in all phases in the ipsilesional arm. Diffusion tensor tractography showed significantly decreased fiber numbers of the corticospinal tract and the spinothalamic tract in both unaffected and affected hemispheres. Pain and range of motion of the left arm of the patient improved after oral steroids with a starting dose of 50 mg/day.

Identification and Treatment of New Inflammatory Triggers for Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth and Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is evoked by conditions that may be associated with local and/or systemic inflammation. We present a case of long-standing CRPS in a patient with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome in which prolonged remission was attained by directing therapy toward concomitant small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, obstructive sleep apnea, and potential increased microglia activity. We theorize that cytokine production produced by small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and obstructive sleep apnea may act as stimuli for ongoing CRPS symptoms. CRPS may also benefit from the properties of low-dose naltrexone that blocks microglia Toll-like receptors and induces production of endorphins that regulate and reduce inflammation.

Demystifying Poststroke Pain: From Etiology to Treatment

Pain after stroke is commonly reported but often incompletely managed, which prevents optimal recovery. This situation occurs in part because of the esoteric nature of poststroke pain and its limited presence in current discussions of stroke management. The major specific afflictions that affect patients with stroke who experience pain include central poststroke pain, complex regional pain syndrome, and pain associated with spasticity and shoulder subluxation. Each disorder carries its own intricacies that require specific approaches to treatment and understanding. This review aims to present and clarify the major pain syndromes that affect patients who have experienced a stroke in order to aid in their diagnosis and treatment.

Post stroke pain: identification, assessment, and therapy

BACKGROUND

Pain is a common complication after stroke and is associated with the presence of depression, cognitive dysfunction, and impaired quality of life. It remains underdiagnosed and undertreated, despite evidence that effective treatment of pain may improve function and quality of life.

SUMMARY

We provide an overview of the means for clinical assessment and risk factors for the development of post-stroke pain, then review the newest available literature regarding the commonest post-stroke pain syndromes, including central post-stroke pain, complex regional pain syndrome, musculoskeletal pain including shoulder subluxation, spasticity-related pain, and post-stroke headache, as well as the available epidemiology and current treatment options. Key Messages: In the best interests of optimizing quality of life and function after stroke, clinicians should be aware of pain as a common complication after stroke, identify those patients at highest risk, directly inquire as to the presence and characteristics of pain, and should be aware of the options for treatment for the various pain syndromes.

Efficacy of methylprednisolone versus other pharmacologic interventions for the treatment of central post-stroke pain: a retrospective analysis

Purpose

To determine if an oral, tapered methylprednisolone regimen is superior to other commonly used pharmacologic interventions for the treatment of central post-stroke pain (CPSP).

Patients and methods

In this study, the charts of 146 stroke patients admitted to acute inpatient rehabilitation were retrospectively reviewed. Patients diagnosed with CPSP underwent further chart review to assess numerical rating scale for pain scores and as-needed pain medication usage at different time points comparing CPSP patients treated with methylprednisolone to those treated with other pharmacologic interventions.

Results

In the sample, 8.2% were diagnosed with CPSP during acute care or inpatient rehabilitation. Mean numerical rating scale for pain scores day of symptom onset did not differ between those patients treated with methylprednisolone versus those treated with other pharmacologic interventions (mean ± standard deviation; 6.1 ± 2.3 versus 5.7 ± 1.6, P = 0.77). However, mean numerical rating scale for pain scores differed significantly 1-day after treatment initiation (1.7 ± 2.1 versus 5.0 ± 1.9, P = 0.03) and 1-day prior to rehabilitation discharge (0.3 ± 0.9 versus 4.1 ± 3.2, P = 0.01) between the two groups. Compared to day of symptom onset, as-needed pain medication usage within the methylprednisolone group was marginally less 1-day after treatment initiation (Z = −1.73, P = 0.08) and 1-day prior to rehabilitation discharge (Z = −1.89, P = 0.06). No difference in as-needed pain medication usage existed within the non-steroid group at the same time points.

Conclusion

Methylprednisolone is a potential therapeutic option for CPSP. The findings herein warrant study in prospective trials.

Non-orthopaedic causes of shoulder pain: what the shoulder expert must remember

Aim of this review is to underline some specific patterns of shoulder pain that are not related to musculoskeletal diseases but are manifestations of gastrointestinal, neurological, cardiological or rheumatological diseases. The most important pathologies (like gallstones, myocardial ischaemia and Parsonage-Turner syndrome...) that can manifest with shoulder pain will be presented by specialty doctors and elements for differential diagnosis will be discussed. Orthopaedic shoulder surgeons should always suspect other causes of pain, different from those related to bone, tendons and joint. If there is something unfair, patients should be referred to family doctor for further investigations in order to exclude major systemic diseases.

Underlying pathology and associated factors of hemiplegic shoulder pain

The prevalence of hemiplegic shoulder pain is approximately 22%-23% in the general population of stroke survivors and approximately 54%-55% among stroke patients in rehabilitation settings. Hemiplegic shoulder pain causes a reduced quality-of-life, poor functional recovery, depression, disturbed sleep, and prolonged hospitalization. Herein, we attempted to understand, based on a literature review and experts' opinion, the pathologic processes underlying hemiplegic shoulder pain and the major associated factors contributing to its development. The systematization of underlying pathologies was proposed, which might eventually enable a more constructive clinical approach in evaluating and treating patients with hemiplegic shoulder pain.

Attenuating effect of Acorus calamus extract in chronic constriction injury induced neuropathic pain in rats: an evidence of anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and calcium inhibitory effects

Background

Acorus calamus (family: Araceae), is an indigenous plant, traditionally it is used as an ingredient of various cocktail preparations and for the management of severe inflammatory disorders in Indian system of medicine. Present study investigated the attenuating role of Acorus calamus plant extract in chronic constriction injury (CCI) of sciatic nerve induced peripheral neuropathy in rats.

Methods

Hot plate, plantar, Randall Selitto, Von Frey Hair, pin prick, acetone drop, photoactometer and rota-rod tests were performed to assess degree of thermal, radiant, mechanical, chemical sensation, spontaneous motor activity and motor co-ordination changes respectively, at different time intervals i.e., day 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21. Tissue myeloperoxidase, superoxide anion and total calcium levels were determined after 21^st day to assess biochemical alterations. Histopathological evaluations were also performed. Hydroalcoholic extract of Acorus calamus (HAE-AC, 100 and 200 mg/kg, p.o.) and pregabalin (10 mg/kg, p.o.) were administered from the day of surgery for 14 days.

Results

CCI of sciatic nerve significantly induced thermal, radiant, mechanical hyperalgesia and thermal, chemical, tactile allodynia, along with increase in the levels of superoxide anion, total calcium and myeloperoxidase activity. Moreover significant histological changes were also observed. HAE-AC attenuated CCI induced development of painful behavioural, biochemical and histological changes in a dose dependent manner similar to that of pregabalin serving as positive control.

Conclusions

Acorus calamus prevented CCI induced neuropathy which may be attributed to its multiple actions including anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and calcium inhibitory actions.