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Prakash E, McLean RJ, White SJ, Paterson KB, Gottlob I, Proudlock FA. Reading Individual Words Within Sentences in Infantile Nystagmus. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2019; 60:2226-2236. [PMID: 31112607 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.18-25793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Normal readers make immediate and precise adjustments in eye movements during sentence reading in response to individual word features, such as lexical difficulty (e.g., common or uncommon words) or word length. Our purpose was to assess the effect of infantile nystagmus (IN) on these adaptive mechanisms. Methods Eye movements were recorded from 29 participants with IN (14 albinism, 12 idiopathic, and 3 congenital stationary night blindness) and 15 controls when reading sentences containing either common/uncommon words or long/short target words. Parameters assessed included: duration of first foveation/fixation, number of first-pass and percentage second-pass foveations/fixations, percentage words skipped, gaze duration, acquisition time (gaze + nongaze duration), landing site locations, clinical and experimental reading speeds. Results Participants with IN could not modify first foveation durations in contrast to controls who made longer first fixations on uncommon words (P < 0.001). Participants with IN made more first-pass foveations on uncommon and long words (P < 0.001) to increase gaze durations. However, this also increased nongaze durations (P < 0.001) delaying acquisition times. Participants with IN reread shorter words more often (P < 0.005). Similar to controls, participants with IN landed more first foveations between the start and center of long words. Reading speeds during experiments were lower in IN participants compared to controls (P < 0.01). Conclusions People with IN make more first-pass foveations on uncommon and long words influencing reading speeds. This demonstrates that the "slow to see" phenomenon occurs during word reading in IN. These deficits are not captured by clinical reading charts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esha Prakash
- University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca J McLean
- University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah J White
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin B Paterson
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - Irene Gottlob
- University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - Frank A Proudlock
- University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, United Kingdom
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Eilers S, Tiffin-Richards SP, Schroeder S. The repeated name penalty effect in children’s natural reading: Evidence from eye tracking. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 72:403-412. [DOI: 10.1177/1747021818757712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We report data from an eye tracking experiment on the repeated name penalty effect in 9-year-old children and young adults. The repeated name penalty effect is informative for the study of children’s reading because it allows conclusions about children’s ability to direct attention to discourse-level processing cues during reading. We presented children and adults simple three-sentence stories with a single referent, which was referred to by an anaphor—either a pronoun or a repeated name—downstream in the text. The anaphor was either near or far from the antecedent. We found a repeated name penalty effect in early processing for children as well as adults, suggesting that beginning readers are already susceptible to discourse-level expectations of anaphora during reading. Furthermore, children’s reading was more influenced by the distance of anaphor and antecedent than adults’, which we attribute to differences in reading fluency and the resulting cognitive load during reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Eilers
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
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Slattery TJ, Yates M. Word skipping: Effects of word length, predictability, spelling and reading skill. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 71:250-259. [PMID: 28856970 PMCID: PMC6159777 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2017.1310264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Readers’ eyes often skip over words as they read. Skipping rates are largely
determined by word length; short words are skipped more than long words.
However, the predictability of a word in context also impacts skipping rates.
Rayner, Slattery, Drieghe and Liversedge reported an effect of predictability on
word skipping for even long words (10-13 characters) that extend beyond the word
identification span. Recent research suggests that better readers and spellers
have an enhanced perceptual span. We explored that whether reading and spelling
skill interact with word length and predictability to impact word skipping rates
in a large sample (N = 92) of average and poor adult readers.
Participants read the items from Rayner et al., while their eye movements were
recorded. Spelling skill (zSpell) was assessed using the dictation and
recognition tasks developed by Sally Andrews and colleagues. Reading skill
(zRead) was assessed from reading speed (words per minute) and comprehension
accuracy of three 120 word passages each with 10 comprehension questions. We fit
linear mixed models to the target gaze duration data and generalized linear
mixed models to the target word skipping data. Target word gaze durations were
significantly predicted by zRead, while the skipping likelihoods were
significantly predicted by zSpell. Additionally, for gaze durations, zRead
significantly interacted with word predictability as better readers relied less
on context to support word processing. These effects are discussed in relation
to the lexical quality hypothesis and eye movement models of reading.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark Yates
- Psychology Department, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
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Koornneef A, Mulders I. Can We 'Read' the Eye-Movement Patterns of Readers? Unraveling the Relationship Between Reading Profiles and Processing Strategies. JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLINGUISTIC RESEARCH 2017; 46:39-56. [PMID: 26996449 PMCID: PMC5290069 DOI: 10.1007/s10936-016-9418-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In an eye-tracking experiment we examined the risky reading hypothesis, in which long saccades and many regressions are considered to be indicative of a proactive reading style (Rayner et al. in Psychol Aging 21(3):448, 2006; Psychol Aging 24(3):755, 2009). We did so by presenting short texts-that confirmed or disconfirmed verb-based implicit causality expectations-to two types of readers: proactive readers (long saccades, many regressions) and conservative readers (short saccades, few regressions). Whereas proactive readers used implicit causality information to predict upcoming referents, and slowed down immediately when they encountered a pronoun that was inconsistent with these verb-based expectations, the conservative readers slowed down much later in the sentence. These findings were consistent with the predictions of the risky reading hypothesis and as such presented novel evidence for the general idea that the eye-movement profile of readers reveals valuable information about their processing strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnout Koornneef
- Institute of Education and Child Studies, Leiden University, Pieter de la Court gebouw, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Iris Mulders
- Utrecht Institute of Linguistics OTS, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Wotschack C, Kliegl R. Reading strategy modulates parafoveal-on-foveal effects in sentence reading. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2013; 66:548-62. [DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2011.625094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Task demands and individual differences have been linked reliably to word skipping during reading. Such differences in fixation probability may imply a selection effect for multivariate analyses of eye-movement corpora if selection effects correlate with word properties of skipped words. For example, with fewer fixations on short and highly frequent words the power to detect parafoveal-on-foveal effects is reduced. We demonstrate that increasing the fixation probability on function words with a manipulation of the expected difficulty and frequency of questions reduces an age difference in skipping probability (i.e., old adults become comparable to young adults) and helps to uncover significant parafoveal-on-foveal effects in this group of old adults. We discuss implications for the comparison of results of eye-movement research based on multivariate analysis of corpus data with those from display-contingent manipulations of target words.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reinhold Kliegl
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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Ghahghaei S, Linnell KJ, Fischer MH, Dubey A, Davis R. Effects of load on the time course of attentional engagement, disengagement, and orienting in reading. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2013; 66:453-70. [DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2011.635795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
We examined how the frequency of the fixated word influences the spatiotemporal distribution of covert attention during reading. Participants discriminated gaze-contingent probes that occurred with different spatial and temporal offsets from randomly chosen fixation points during reading. We found that attention was initially focused at fixation and that subsequent defocusing was slower when the fixated word was lower in frequency. Later in a fixation, attention oriented more towards the next saccadic target for high- than for low-frequency words. These results constitute the first report of the time course of the effect of load on attentional engagement and orienting in reading. They are discussed in the context of serial and parallel models of reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeideh Ghahghaei
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK
- The Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Karina J. Linnell
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK
| | - Martin H. Fischer
- Department of Psychology, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
- Division of Cognitive Science, University of Potsdam, Germany
| | - Amit Dubey
- Department of Psychology, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
- School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Robert Davis
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK
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Abstract
During reading, saccadic eye movements are generated to shift words into the center of the visual field for lexical processing. Recently, Krügel and Engbert (Vision Research 50:1532–1539, 2010) demonstrated that within-word fixation positions are largely shifted to the left after skipped words. However, explanations of the origin of this effect cannot be drawn from normal reading data alone. Here we show that the large effect of skipped words on the distribution of within-word fixation positions is primarily based on rather subtle differences in the low-level visual information acquired before saccades. Using arrangements of “x” letter strings, we reproduced the effect of skipped character strings in a highly controlled single-saccade task. Our results demonstrate that the effect of skipped words in reading is the signature of a general visuomotor phenomenon. Moreover, our findings extend beyond the scope of the widely accepted range-error model, which posits that within-word fixation positions in reading depend solely on the distances of target words. We expect that our results will provide critical boundary conditions for the development of visuomotor models of saccade planning during reading.
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Rayner K, Slattery TJ, Drieghe D, Liversedge SP. Eye movements and word skipping during reading: effects of word length and predictability. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2011; 37:514-28. [PMID: 21463086 DOI: 10.1037/a0020990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Eye movements were monitored as subjects read sentences containing high- or low-predictable target words. The extent to which target words were predictable from prior context was varied: Half of the target words were predictable, and the other half were unpredictable. In addition, the length of the target word varied: The target words were short (4-6 letters), medium (7-9 letters), or long (10-12 letters). Length and predictability both yielded strong effects on the probability of skipping the target words and on the amount of time readers fixated the target words (when they were not skipped). However, there was no interaction in any of the measures examined for either skipping or fixation time. The results demonstrate that word predictability (due to contextual constraint) and word length have strong and independent influences on word skipping and fixation durations. Furthermore, because the long words extended beyond the word identification span, the data indicate that skipping can occur on the basis of partial information in relation to word identity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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Pilotti M, Chodorow M, Schauss F. Text familiarity, word frequency, and sentential constraints in error detection. Percept Mot Skills 2010; 109:627-45. [PMID: 20178261 DOI: 10.2466/pms.109.3.627-645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The present study examines whether the frequency of an error-bearing word and its predictability, arising from sentential constraints and text familiarity, either independently or jointly, would impair error detection by making proofreading driven by top-down processes. Prior to a proofreading task, participants were asked to read, copy, memorize, or paraphrase sentences, half of which contained errors. These tasks represented a continuum of progressively more demanding and time-consuming activities, which were thought to lead to comparable increases in text familiarity and thus predictability. Proofreading times were unaffected by whether the sentences had been encountered earlier. Proofreading was slower and less accurate for high-frequency words and for highly constrained sentences. Prior memorization produced divergent effects on accuracy depending on sentential constraints. The latter finding suggested that a substantial level of predictability, such as that produced by memorizing highly constrained sentences, can increase the probability of overlooking errors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maura Pilotti
- School of Science and Mathematics, New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas, NM 87701, USA.
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Rayner K. The 35th Sir Frederick Bartlett Lecture: Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2009; 62:1457-506. [PMID: 19449261 DOI: 10.1080/17470210902816461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 977] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Eye movements are now widely used to investigate cognitive processes during reading, scene perception, and visual search. In this article, research on the following topics is reviewed with respect to reading: (a) the perceptual span (or span of effective vision), (b) preview benefit, (c) eye movement control, and (d) models of eye movements. Related issues with respect to eye movements during scene perception and visual search are also reviewed. It is argued that research on eye movements during reading has been somewhat advanced over research on eye movements in scene perception and visual search and that some of the paradigms developed to study reading should be more widely adopted in the study of scene perception and visual search. Research dealing with “real-world” tasks and research utilizing the visual-world paradigm are also briefly discussed.
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Grondelaers S, Speelman D, Drieghe D, Brysbaert M, Geeraerts D. Introducing a new entity into discourse: comprehension and production evidence for the status of Dutch er "there" as a higher-level expectancy monitor. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2009; 130:153-60. [PMID: 19121514 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2008] [Revised: 11/24/2008] [Accepted: 11/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper reports on the ways in which new entities are introduced into discourse. First, we present the evidence in support of a model of indefinite reference processing based on three principles: the listener's ability to make predictive inferences in order to decrease the unexpectedness of upcoming words, the availability to the speaker of grammatical constructions that customize predictive inferences, and the use of "expectancy monitors" to signal and facilitate the introduction of highly unpredictable entities. We provide evidence that one of these expectancy monitors in Dutch is the post-verbal variant of existential er (the equivalent of the unstressed existential "there" in English). In an eye-tracking experiment we demonstrate that the presence of er decreases the processing difficulties caused by low subject expectancy. A corpus-based regression analysis subsequently confirms that the production of er is determined almost exclusively by seven parameters of low subject expectancy. Together, the comprehension and production data suggest that while existential er functions as an expectancy monitor in much the same way as speech disfluencies (hesitations, pauses and filled pauses), er is a higher-level expectancy monitor because it is available in spoken and written discourse and because it is produced more systematically than any disfluency.
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Drieghe D, Pollatsek A, Staub A, Rayner K. The word grouping hypothesis and eye movements during reading. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2008; 34:1552-60. [PMID: 18980414 PMCID: PMC2597395 DOI: 10.1037/a0013017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The distribution of landing positions and durations of first fixations in a region containing a noun preceded by either an article (e.g., the soldiers) or a high-frequency 3-letter word (e.g., all soldiers) were compared. Although there were fewer first fixations on the blank space between the high-frequency 3-letter word and the noun than on the surrounding letters (and the fixations on the blank space were shorter), this pattern did not occur when the noun was preceded by an article. R. Radach (1996) inferred from a similar experiment that did not manipulate the type of short word that 2 words could be processed as a perceptual unit during reading when the first word is a short word. As this different pattern of fixations is restricted to article-noun pairs, it indicates that word grouping does not occur purely on the basis of word length during reading; moreover, as the authors demonstrate, one can explain the observed patterns in both conditions more parsimoniously without adopting a word-grouping mechanism in eye movement control during reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Drieghe
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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