Cognitive self-affirmation inclination: an individual difference in dealing with self-threats

Internal and external self-affirmation resources: validation and assessment of psychometric properties of the spontaneous self-affirmation measure using structural equation modeling

Introduction

People use coping strategies such as self-affirmation to manage threats to their self-esteem. In empirical research, self-affirmation often involves recalling personal values, strengths, or relationships to restore moral integrity. Research shows it improves attitude adjustment, resolves cognitive dissonance, and enhances well-being. Some studies stress the importance of distinguishing between different aspects of self-affirmation, like strengths or social relations. These aspects align with concepts in psychotherapy that differentiate between internal and external resource activation, benefiting health, self-esteem, and resilience. The aim of the current study was twofold: first, to independently test the three-factor structure of the Spontaneous Self-affirmation Measure (SSAM), and second, to integrate self-affirmation strategies into a broader resource activation framework as resilience factors. It also examined associations with self-esteem and effects of age, gender, and education on spontaneous self-affirmation.

Methods

1,100 participants (72% female, age 18-65) were recruited online. The original three-factor structure of the SSAM (with the factors Strengths, Values and Social relations) was examined using structural equation modeling. Further, a theory driven two-factor structure applying an internal and external resources framework was examined, integrating the factors of the SSAM into the taxonomy of resource activation (Internal resources: Strengths and Values; External resources: Social relations).

Results

The results of confirmatory factor analyses showed that both the original three-factor structure and the complementary two-factor structure with an Internal resources and External resources factor fit the data appropriately. All three factors of the original factor model showed a high reliability (Strengths: ω t = 0.91, Values: ω t = 0.91, Social relations: ω t = 0.92). We also found measurement invariance across age, gender, and education. Furthermore, group differences regarding gender, education and ethnicity in the utilization of spontaneous self-affirmation strategies were apparent. Finally, it was demonstrated that the Internal resources factor of the complementary two-factor model is significantly more strongly correlated with self-esteem than the External Resources factor [z = 12.80, p < 0.001, 95%CIdiff (0.24, 0.33)].

Discussion

The study confirms the validity of both the three-factor and two-factor structures of the SSAM. Integrating self-affirmation into the resource activation framework may facilitate applying findings from self-affirmation studies to clinical contexts.

The working memory approach of persuasion: Induced eye movements lead to more social media self-control behaviours

In the framework of prevention of social media addiction, persuasive messages can be used to stimulate people to engage in social media self-control behaviours. However, the effects of these messages may be weakened by defensive reactions. In the Working Memory account of Persuasion, these defensive self-regulatory actions in the Working Memory (WM) are activated to lower a given threat. Because the WM has limited capacity, and these defensive processes take WM capacity, they can be inhibited by inducing eye movements (EMi). Adults (N = 117) from the general population listened in an online experiment to an auditory message on the negative consequences of social media use (SMU). Half of the participants were randomly assigned to the EMi condition; they were asked to keep watching a moving red square on their screen during the exposure to the auditory message. SMU self-control behaviour was the outcome measure, assessed by self-report 2 weeks later. The effects of EMi on SMU self-control behaviour were moderated by individual differences, indicating defensive self-regulatory actions: EMi significantly increased behaviour in participants who scored low on Cognitive Self-affirmation Inclination, high on SMU-control-failure, and, unexpectedly, low in SMU. This study detected defensive reactions towards persuasive information concerning SMU, using the EMi research paradigm.

Longitudinal comparisons of self-affirmation approaches for sun protection

OBJECTIVES

Self-affirmation approaches for health behaviour demonstrate consistent small to medium effects on message acceptance, health intentions and behaviour change. There are several forms of self-affirmation (e.g., values affirmations, implementation intentions), but few empirical comparisons to guide selection in empirical work. Further, there has been little emphasis on the putative mechanisms of self-affirmation driving behaviour change. The current investigation compared a control and four self-affirmation approaches: values, social, implementation intention, and perspective taking.

METHODS

Participants were recruited through CloudResearch (N = 666) and reported baseline sun exposure and protection behaviour at Time 1. One week later (Time 2), returning participants (N = 535) were randomly assigned to condition, viewed a message conveying risks of sun exposure, and reported sun exposure and protection intentions for the next week. Follow-up one week later (Time 3; N = 449) assessed past week sun exposure (i.e., number of days spent outside during peak hours), sun protection behaviour (e.g., sunscreen use), future sun exposure and protection intentions and engagement with resources conveying further health information (i.e., viewing infographics, following links to websites with more information). The association of putative mechanisms with self-affirmation conditions and health outcomes was also examined.

RESULTS

Unexpectedly, there were few differences between self-affirmation conditions and the control on intentions, information seeking, or behaviour at follow-up. At follow-up, perspective circle participants reported fewer days spent outside, spent longer viewing infographics, and, along with social values participants, followed more weblinks seeking information than control participants. The putative mechanisms were unrelated to health outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

The current investigation was a first step in comparing novel online self-affirmation approaches and had largely null findings. Results suggest that the perspective circle performed best at promoting information seeking and, to some extent, behaviour change. Suggestions for future directions are discussed.

Are they out to get me? Individual differences in nonclinical paranoia as a function of narcissism and defensive self-protection

OBJECTIVE

Three studies tested a novel model of the narcissism-paranoia link, whereby narcissism (primarily its socially maladaptive facets) is associated with paranoia via over-use of defensive self-protection and/or under-use of self-affirmation.

METHODS

In Study 1, 245 online volunteers (87% female; M_AGE  = 20.92; 44% White-British) completed trait measures of narcissism, self-enhancement/protection strategies and paranoia. In Study 2, 116 students (82% female; M_AGE  = 20.23; 70% White-British) completed baseline measures, then reported state reactions and paranoia following two difficult and two pleasant interpersonal events after 3-10 days. In Study 3, 517 online volunteers (64% female; M_AGE  = 22.76; 77% White/Caucasian) completed baseline measures, experienced a standardized social exclusion (vs. neutral) manipulation (Cyberball), then reported state reactions and paranoia.

RESULTS

In Study 1, narcissism was associated with higher paranoia via defensiveness. In Study 2, this was replicated in difficult but not pleasant events, and was driven by the Entitlement/Exploitativeness facet of narcissism. In Study 3, narcissistic rivalry and vulnerable narcissism, but not admiration, were associated with Cyberball-related paranoia via general defensiveness and denigration of others.

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals high in narcissism-especially its socially maladaptive facets-who over-rely on defensive self-protection strategies in response to threat, are particularly vulnerable to paranoia. Findings help to understand individual differences in paranoia.

Mediators and Moderators of Reinforced Self-Affirmation as a Method for Reducing the Memory Misinformation Effect

The misinformation effect occurs when an eyewitness includes information in his or her account that is incongruent with the event he or she witnessed, and stems from being exposed to incorrect external sources. This is a serious threat to the quality of witness testimony and to the correctness of decisions reached by courts. However, few methods have been developed to reduce the vulnerability of witnesses to misinformation. This article presents such a method, namely, reinforced self-affirmation (RSA), which, by increasing memory confidence of witnesses, makes them less inclined to rely on external sources of information and more on their own memory. The effectiveness of this method was confirmed in three experiments. It was also found that memory confidence, but not general self-confidence, is a mediator of the impact of RSA on misinformation effect (ME), and that contingent self-esteem and feedback acceptance, but not sense of self-efficacy or general self-esteem, are moderators of this impact. It is concluded that RSA may be a promising basis for constructing methods, which can be used by forensic psychologists in real forensic settings.

Examining self-affirmation as a tactic for recruiting inactive women into exercise interventions

Recruitment of insufficiently active individuals into exercise interventions is difficult due to many different barriers, including motivational barriers and negative body image. The present study provided an initial conceptual test of whether self-affirmation can help increase recruitment of insufficiently active women to an exercise intervention. Emerging adult women were randomly assigned to complete a self-affirmation or control task prior to reading the same message concerning the consequences of inactivity. In addition to completing demographic and body image measures at baseline, U.S. undergraduate participants (N = 254) indicated their interest in registering for an intervention and their intention to exercise after the experimental manipulation. Data did not support hypotheses that (1) self-affirmed women would find the message less threatening and less manipulative, (2) self-affirmed women would have higher intentions to exercise, (3) self-affirmed women would be more likely to register interest for a future exercise intervention, and (4) condition and body dissatisfaction would interact such that the intervention would be particularly beneficial for women with high body dissatisfaction. Results revealed that 70% of participants were unwilling to register for an exercise intervention, which indicates that other novel exercise intervention recruitment techniques need to be tested.

Association of Spontaneous and Induced Self-Affirmation With Smoking Cessation in Users of a Mobile App: Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Most smokers attempt to stop using cigarettes numerous times before successfully quitting. Cigarette cravings may undermine perceived competence to quit and thus constitute psychological threats to the individual’s self-concept. Self-affirmation may promote smoking cessation by offsetting these threats.

Objective

This study examines whether self-affirmation is associated with smoking cessation in the context of a cessation app. Two types of self-affirmation are examined: tendency to spontaneously self-affirm, and self-affirmation inductions added to a publicly available smoking cessation app (Smoke-Free Quit Smoking Now). In addition, this study explores whether optimism and emotional states (happiness, anger, anxiousness, hopefulness, sadness) predict smoking cessation.

Methods

All users who met the inclusion criteria, provided consent to participate, and completed a baseline assessment, including all individual difference measures, were randomized to 1 of 4 conditions. Half of the participants were randomly assigned to complete a self-affirmation induction upon study entry. Orthogonally, half of the participants were randomly assigned to receive self-affirming text notifications during their quit attempt or to receive conventional notifications. The induction and the text notifications were fully automated, and all data were collected through self-assessments in the app. Self-reported smoking cessation was assessed 1 month and 3 months following study entry.

Results

The study enrolled 7899 participants; 647 completed the 1-month follow-up. Using an intent-to-treat analysis at the 1-month follow-up, 7.2% (569/7899) of participants self-reported not smoking in the previous week and 6.4% (503/7899) self-reported not smoking in the previous month. Greater tendency to spontaneously self-affirm predicted a greater likelihood of cessation (P<.001) at 1 month after controlling for smoking-related variables. Neither self-affirmation induction influenced cessation. In addition, spontaneous self-affirmation did not moderate the relationship between self-affirmation inductions and cessation. Greater baseline sadness was associated with a lower likelihood of reporting successful cessation. Optimism predicted past-week cessation at the 1-month follow-up, and both happiness and anger predicted past-month cessation at the 1-month follow-up; however, none of these potential predictors moderated the relationship between self-affirmation conditions and successful cessation.

Conclusions

Spontaneous self-affirmation may be an important psychological resource for managing threats to self-concept during the smoking cessation process. Sadness may hinder quit attempts. Future research can explicate how spontaneous versus induced self-affirmation can promote smoking cessation and examine boundary conditions for the effectiveness of disseminated self-affirmation interventions.

Trial Registration

ISRCTN Registry 56646695; https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN56646695

Detecting and Preventing Defensive Reactions Toward Persuasive Information on Fruit and Vegetable Consumption Using Induced Eye Movements

Objective: Persuasive messages regarding fruit and vegetable consumption often meet defensive reactions from recipients, which may lower message effectiveness. Individual differences in emotion regulation and gender are expected to predict these reactions. In the working memory account of persuasion, inducing voluntary eye movements during the processing of the auditory persuasive information might prevent defensiveness and thereby increase message effectiveness.

Methods: Participants in two independently recruited samples from the general population (n = 118 and n = 99) listened to a negatively framed auditory persuasive message advocating fruit and vegetable consumption. Half of them were asked to keep following a regularly moving stimulus on their screen with their eyes. At pretest, the individual differences of cognitive self-affirmation inclination (CSAI) and gender were assessed to predict defensive reactions.

Results: In Study 1, induced eye movements significantly increased self-reported consumption after 2 weeks when CSAI was low, but only in males, as indicated by a significant three-way interaction (p < 0.001). With negative self-evaluative emotions as dependent variable, this three-way interaction was also significant (p < 0.05), suggesting that induced eye movements prevented defensiveness in low CSAI males. Study 2 did not assess consumption but replicated the latter three-way interaction (p < 0.05).

Conclusion: The studies replicated our earlier findings regarding the moderating effects of individual differences in emotion regulation (i.e., CSAI) on persuasion, but they also revealed gender differences in persuasion that are related to the working memory. The working memory account of persuasion provides new theoretical as well as practical angles on persuasion to target individuals in persuasion to increase fruit and vegetable consumption.

Predictors of aggression of university students

Background

Post-secondary education forms the backbone of delivering high-powered persons in a country. Students are subjected to high levels of pressure to achieve success. This often promotes aggression towards self, others and even the environment. Predicting aggression is important as this can assist in managing aggression and the facilitation of the mental health of students. Little research has been published on the prediction of aggression in a university.

Aim

To describe the prediction of aggression of students in one faculty in a university.

Setting

Students in one faculty in a university.

Methods

A deductive quantitative methodology was applied. Multivariate statistical techniques were used to answer the research questions. An online survey was conducted by using a questionnaire that comprised items related to biographic, personality and aggression aspects. Data were analysed by calculating Cronbach's alpha values, various factor analyses (principal component analysis) and several multiple regression analyses to identify and describe the predictors of aggression.

Results

Findings reflect that aggression can be predicted by intra- and interpersonal variables, such as 'positive inclination towards others', 'positive inclination towards self' and 'acting responsibly towards self.' Aggression is lower when a student's positive inclination towards others is higher and towards self is lower and when a student acts with greater responsibility towards self.

Conclusion

Students should understand and manage their own aggression. Overall, the findings showed that students are seemingly 'adjusted' conformists using an external locus of control. The facilitation of an internal locus of control and autonomous behaviour is imperative.

Reinstating the Resourceful Self: When and How Self-Affirmations Improve Executive Performance of the Powerless

Research has found that lack of power impairs executive functions. In the present research, we show that this impairment is not immutable. Across three studies and focusing on inhibitory control as one of the core facets of executive functions, our investigation shows that self-affirmation attenuates the previously documented decrements in inhibitory control of the powerless (Studies 1-3). We also examine boundary conditions of this effect and demonstrate that self-affirmation is most effective insofar as the powerless lack self-esteem (Study 2). Finally, we directly test the underlying process of this effect and demonstrate that self-affirmation increases an efficacious self-view among the powerless, which in turn improves their inhibitory control abilities (Study 3). Overall, we conclude that reinstating an efficacious self-view through self-affirmation offsets the impairments in inhibitory control abilities of the powerless and reduces the cognitive performance gap between the powerless and the powerful.

Eye movement inductions influence health behaviour: the working memory account of persuasion

Objective: Because the working memory (WM) has a limited capacity, the cognitive reactions towards persuasive information in the WM might be disturbed by taxing it by other means, in this study, by inducing voluntary eye movements (EMi). This is expected to influence persuasion. Methods: Participants (N = 127) listened to an auditory persuasive message on fruit and vegetable consumption, that was either framed positively or negatively. Half of them was asked to keep following a regularly moving dot on their screen with their eyes. At pretest, cognitive self-affirmation inclination (CSAI) was assessed as individual difference to test possible moderation effects. Results: The EMi significantly lowered the quality of the mental images that participants reported to have of the persuasive outcomes. With regard to self-reported fruit and vegetable consumption after two weeks, EMi significantly lowered consumption when CSAI was high but it significantly increased consumption when CSAI was low. Conclusions: The results verify our earlier findings that induced EM can influence persuasion. Although it remains unclear whether the effects of EMi were caused by disturbing mental images of persuasive outcomes or self-regulative reactions to these images, or both, the WM account may provide new theoretical as well as practical angles on persuasion.

Spontaneous self-affirmation is associated with psychological well-being: Evidence from a US national adult survey sample

Emerging evidence suggests that individuals spontaneously self-affirm, by reflecting on values and strengths, in response to daily threats. We examined the prevalence and demographic and well-being correlates of spontaneous self-affirmation in the general population. Participants ( n = 3185) completed the cross-sectional, nationally representative 2013 Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS 4, Cycle 3), and answered questions about spontaneous self-affirmation, demographic factors, well-being, and affect. The majority of the population reported spontaneously self-affirming. Black and Hispanic respondents reported engaging in more spontaneous self-affirmation. Engaging in spontaneous self-affirmation was related to greater happiness, hopefulness, optimism, subjective health, and personal health efficacy, and less anger and sadness.

Optimism and Spontaneous Self-affirmation are Associated with Lower Likelihood of Cognitive Impairment and Greater Positive Affect among Cancer Survivors

BACKGROUND

Optimism and self-affirmation promote adaptive coping, goal achievement, and better health.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study is to examine the associations of optimism and spontaneous self-affirmation (SSA) with physical, mental, and cognitive health and information seeking among cancer survivors.

METHODS

Cancer survivors (n = 326) completed the Health Information National Trends Survey 2013, a national survey of US adults. Participants reported optimism, SSA, cognitive and physical impairment, affect, health status, and information seeking.

RESULTS

Participants higher in optimism reported better health on nearly all indices examined, even when controlling for SSA. Participants higher in SSA reported lower likelihood of cognitive impairment, greater happiness and hopefulness, and greater likelihood of cancer information seeking. SSA remained significantly associated with greater hopefulness and cancer information seeking when controlling for optimism.

CONCLUSIONS

Optimism and SSA may be associated with beneficial health-related outcomes among cancer survivors. Given the demonstrated malleability of self-affirmation, these findings represent important avenues for future research.

Associations of spontaneous self-affirmation with health care experiences and health information seeking in a national survey of US adults

OBJECTIVE

Self-affirming--such as by reflecting on one's strengths and values--reduces defensiveness to threatening information, reduces negative effects of stereotype threat and promotes prosociality. These outcomes may promote physical health, highlighting a need to examine the role of self-affirmation in medical and health contexts.

DESIGN

Data were collected as part of the nationally representative, cross-sectional, 2013 Health Information National Trends Survey. Items were completed by 2731 respondents.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Respondents answered questions about spontaneous self-affirmation tendencies, perceptions of providers and health care, involvement in medical appointments, health information seeking and engagement in medical research.

RESULTS

Spontaneous self-affirmation was associated with more positive perceptions of communication with one's provider, better perceived quality of care, greater likelihood of asking questions in a medical appointment, greater information seeking for oneself and multiple indices of surrogate information seeking (i.e. seeking information for others). Four of eight significant associations remained significant when controlling for optimism. The associations of self-affirmation with aspects of the patient-provider relationship were not modified by factors likely to be associated with stereotype threat (e.g. race or BMI).

CONCLUSION

Spontaneous self-affirmation was related to positive outcomes in health contexts. Experimental research is needed to further explore the causal nature of these associations.

The role of current affect, anticipated affect and spontaneous self-affirmation in decisions to receive self-threatening genetic risk information

One reason for not seeking personally threatening information may be negative current and anticipated affective responses. We examined whether current (e.g., worry) and anticipated negative affect predicted intentions to seek sequencing results in the context of an actual genomic sequencing trial (ClinSeq®; n = 545) and whether spontaneous self-affirmation mitigated any (negative) association between affect and intentions. Anticipated affective response negatively predicted intentions to obtain and share results pertaining to both medically actionable and non-actionable disease, whereas current affect was only a marginal predictor. The negative association between anticipated affect and intentions to obtain results pertaining to non-actionable disease was weaker in individuals who were higher in spontaneous self-affirmation. These results have implications for the understanding of current and anticipated affect, self-affirmation and consequential decision-making and contribute to a growing body of evidence on the role of affect in medical decisions.

The psychology of change: self-affirmation and social psychological intervention

People have a basic need to maintain the integrity of the self, a global sense of personal adequacy. Events that threaten self-integrity arouse stress and self-protective defenses that can hamper performance and growth. However, an intervention known as self-affirmation can curb these negative outcomes. Self-affirmation interventions typically have people write about core personal values. The interventions bring about a more expansive view of the self and its resources, weakening the implications of a threat for personal integrity. Timely affirmations have been shown to improve education, health, and relationship outcomes, with benefits that sometimes persist for months and years. Like other interventions and experiences, self-affirmations can have lasting benefits when they touch off a cycle of adaptive potential, a positive feedback loop between the self-system and the social system that propagates adaptive outcomes over time. The present review highlights both connections with other disciplines and lessons for a social psychological understanding of intervention and change.

The moderating impact of self-esteem on self-affirmation effects

OBJECTIVES

This study explored whether self-esteem would moderate the effectiveness of a self-affirmation manipulation at increasing openness to personally relevant health-risk information.

DESIGN

The study employed a prospective experimental design.

METHOD

Participants (N = 328) completed either a self-affirmation manipulation or a control task, prior to reading information detailing the health-related consequences of taking insufficient exercise. They then completed a series of measures assessing their cognitions towards exercise and their derogation of the information. Exercise behaviour was assessed at 1-week follow-up.

RESULTS

Self-esteem moderated the impact of self-affirmation on the majority of outcomes. For participants with low self-esteem, the self-affirmation manipulation resulted in more positive attitudes and intentions towards exercise, together with lower levels of derogation of the health-risk information. By contrast, there was no effect of the self-affirmation manipulation on outcomes for participants with high self-esteem.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that self-affirmation manipulations might be of particular benefit for those with low self-esteem in terms of promoting openness towards health-risk information. This is promising from a health promotion perspective, as individuals with low self-esteem often represent those most in need of intervention. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Self-affirmation has been shown to result in more open processing of personally relevant health-risk information. Individuals low in self-esteem tend to process such information more defensively than those high in self-esteem. What does this study add? It explores whether self-esteem moderates the impact of self-affirmation on responses to health-risk information. Findings suggest that individuals with low self-esteem benefit most from the self-affirmation manipulation. This has important applied implications, as individuals with low self-esteem may be most in need of intervention.