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Affiliation(s)
- K. Hughes
- Department of Veterinary Medicine University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
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2
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Abstract
An understanding of the anatomy, histology, and development of the equine mammary gland underpins study of the pathology of diseases including galactorrhoea, agalactia, mastitis, and mammary tumour development. This review examines the prenatal development of the equine mammary gland and the striking degree to which the tissue undergoes postnatal development associated with the reproductive cycle. The gland is characterised by epithelial structures arranged in terminal duct lobular units, similar to those of the human breast, supported by distinct zones of intra- and interlobular collagenous stroma. Mastitis and mammary carcinomas are two of the most frequently described equine mammary pathologies and have an overlap in associated clinical signs. Mastitis is most frequently associated with bacterial aetiologies, particularly Streptococcus spp., and knowledge of the process of post-lactational regression can be applied to preventative husbandry strategies. Equine mammary tumours are rare and carry a poor prognosis in many cases. Recent studies have used mammosphere assays to reveal novel insights into the identification and potential behaviour of mammary stem/progenitor cell populations. These suggest that mammospheres derived from equine cells have different growth dynamics compared to those from other species. In parallel with studying the equine mammary gland in order to advance knowledge of equine mammary disease at the interface of basic and clinical science, there is a need to better understand equine lactational biology. This is driven in part by the recognition of the potential value of horse and donkey milk for human consumption, particularly donkey milk in children with 'Cow Milk Protein Allergy'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Hughes
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Brocca G, Centelleghe C, Padoan E, Stoppini R, Giudice C, Castagnaro M, Zappulli V. Case Report of a Mare Diagnosed with a Metastatic Mammary Carcinoma after the Excision of a Recurrent Intraocular Neuroepithelial Tumor. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10122409. [PMID: 33339329 PMCID: PMC7765899 DOI: 10.3390/ani10122409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary This case report describes the unusual presentation of two rare tumors in a mare diagnosed over a short period of time (9 months), affecting the eye and the mammary gland, with a relapse of the ocular tumor presenting histological features that cannot be attributed to any specific neoplastic entity. In the study, we describe the in vivo diagnosis and treatment of the neuroepithelial intraocular tumor and the post mortem detection of a metastatic malignant mammary carcinoma. Abstract A 24-year-old Irish Cob mare was presented with a peripheral iris mass, which was surgically resected and diagnosed as an undifferentiated neuroepithelial tumor. A few months later, a relapse occurred with histological features characterized by a more solid appearance and squamous differentiation. Subsequently, the mare was presented with rapidly spreading multiple subcutaneous masses and, at the onset of neurological signs, was humanely euthanized and subjected to a complete post mortem examination. The necropsy confirmed the presence of numerous widespread masses in the subcutaneous tissue, several internal organs, and mammary gland. Histological and immunohistochemical (IHC) examinations were performed on all masses, allowing the diagnosis of mammary carcinoma with several visceral and subcutaneous metastases. Considering the post mortem findings, the second intraocular mass was submitted to histological and IHC re-evaluation to differentiate it from an intraocular metastasis of the mammary carcinoma. The results of the histological and IHC analyses confirmed the diagnosis of neuroepithelial tumor relapse. This is the first case of a metastatic mammary carcinoma concurrent with a recurrent intraocular neuroepithelial tumor in a mare. This case was a challenge for both clinicians and pathologists involved and highlighted the importance of post mortem and IHC evaluations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginevra Brocca
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, 35020 Padua, Italy; (C.C.); (M.C.); (V.Z.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Cinzia Centelleghe
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, 35020 Padua, Italy; (C.C.); (M.C.); (V.Z.)
| | - Elisa Padoan
- Equine Veterinary Practitioner, Chioggia, 30015 Venice, Italy;
| | - Riccardo Stoppini
- Consultant in Equine Ophthalmology, Lonato del Garda, 25017 Brescia, Italy;
| | - Chiara Giudice
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Lodi, 26900 Lodi, Italy;
| | - Massimo Castagnaro
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, 35020 Padua, Italy; (C.C.); (M.C.); (V.Z.)
| | - Valentina Zappulli
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, 35020 Padua, Italy; (C.C.); (M.C.); (V.Z.)
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Sabiza S, Rezaie A, Naddaf H, Sajjadi Dezfouli M, Kaamyab Niya M. Surgical treatment of a mammary gland comedocarcinoma in an Arabian mare: Post‐operative management, and histopathological and immunohistochemical features. EQUINE VET EDUC 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Sabiza
- Department of Clinical Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz AhvazIran
| | - A. Rezaie
- Department of Pathobiology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz Ahvaz Iran
| | - H. Naddaf
- Department of Clinical Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz AhvazIran
| | - M. Sajjadi Dezfouli
- Department of Clinical Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz AhvazIran
| | - M. Kaamyab Niya
- Department of Clinical Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz AhvazIran
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Equine Arteritis Virus Has Specific Tropism for Stromal Cells and CD8 + T and CD21 + B Lymphocytes but Not for Glandular Epithelium at the Primary Site of Persistent Infection in the Stallion Reproductive Tract. J Virol 2017; 91:JVI.00418-17. [PMID: 28424285 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00418-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) has a global impact on the equine industry as the causative agent of equine viral arteritis (EVA), a respiratory, systemic, and reproductive disease of equids. A distinctive feature of EAV infection is that it establishes long-term persistent infection in 10 to 70% of infected stallions (carriers). In these stallions, EAV is detectable only in the reproductive tract, and viral persistence occurs despite the presence of high serum neutralizing antibody titers. Carrier stallions constitute the natural reservoir of the virus as they continuously shed EAV in their semen. Although the accessory sex glands have been implicated as the primary sites of EAV persistence, the viral host cell tropism and whether viral replication in carrier stallions occurs in the presence or absence of host inflammatory responses remain unknown. In this study, dual immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence techniques were employed to unequivocally demonstrate that the ampulla is the main EAV tissue reservoir rather than immunologically privileged tissues (i.e., testes). Furthermore, we demonstrate that EAV has specific tropism for stromal cells (fibrocytes and possibly tissue macrophages) and CD8+ T and CD21+ B lymphocytes but not glandular epithelium. Persistent EAV infection is associated with moderate, multifocal lymphoplasmacytic ampullitis comprising clusters of B (CD21+) lymphocytes and significant infiltration of T (CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, and CD25+) lymphocytes, tissue macrophages, and dendritic cells (Iba-1+ and CD83+), with a small number of tissue macrophages expressing CD163 and CD204 scavenger receptors. This study suggests that EAV employs complex immune evasion mechanisms that warrant further investigation.IMPORTANCE The major challenge for the worldwide control of EAV is that this virus has the distinctive ability to establish persistent infection in the stallion's reproductive tract as a mechanism to ensure its maintenance in equid populations. Therefore, the precise identification of tissue and cellular tropism of EAV is critical for understanding the molecular basis of viral persistence and for development of improved prophylactic or treatment strategies. This study significantly enhances our understanding of the EAV carrier state in stallions by unequivocally identifying the ampullae as the primary sites of viral persistence, combined with the fact that persistence involves continuous viral replication in fibrocytes (possibly including tissue macrophages) and T and B lymphocytes in the presence of detectable inflammatory responses, suggesting the involvement of complex viral mechanisms of immune evasion. Therefore, EAV persistence provides a powerful new natural animal model to study RNA virus persistence in the male reproductive tract.
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Bussche L, Harms C, Buckles EL, Whelchel D, Brosnahan M, Van de Walle GR. Carcinoma of the mammary gland in a mare. EQUINE VET EDUC 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.12500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. Bussche
- Baker Institute for Animal Health; College of Veterinary Medicine; Cornell University; Ithaca New York USA
| | - C. Harms
- Southern Equine Service; Aiken South Carolina USA
- Rood and Riddle Equine Hospital in Saratoga; New York USA
| | - E. L. Buckles
- Anatomic Pathology; College of Veterinary Medicine; Cornell University; Ithaca New York USA
| | - D. Whelchel
- Southern Equine Service; Aiken South Carolina USA
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery; University of Missouri; Columbia USA
| | - M. Brosnahan
- Baker Institute for Animal Health; College of Veterinary Medicine; Cornell University; Ithaca New York USA
| | - G. R. Van de Walle
- Baker Institute for Animal Health; College of Veterinary Medicine; Cornell University; Ithaca New York USA
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Sánchez-Céspedes R, Millán Y, Guil-Luna S, Reymundo C, Espinosa de Los Monteros A, Martín de Las Mulas J. Myoepithelial cells in canine mammary tumours. Vet J 2015; 207:45-52. [PMID: 26639832 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Revised: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Mammary tumours are the most common neoplasms of female dogs. Compared to mammary tumours of humans and cats, myoepithelial (ME) cell involvement is common in canine mammary tumours (CMT) of any subtype. Since ME cell involvement in CMT influences both histogenetic tumour classification and prognosis, correct identification of ME cells is important. This review describes immunohistochemical methods for identification of canine mammary ME cells used in vivo. In addition, phenotypic and genotypic methods to isolate ME cells for in vitro studies to analyse tumour-suppressor protein production and gene expression are discussed. The contribution of ME cells to both histogenetic classifications and the prognosis of CMT is compared with other species and the potential use of ME cells as a method to identify carcinoma in situ is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yolanda Millán
- Department of Comparative Pathology, University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Silvia Guil-Luna
- Department of Comparative Pathology, University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Carlos Reymundo
- Department of Pathology, University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Antonio Espinosa de Los Monteros
- Unit of Histology and Animal Pathology, Institute for Animal Health, Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35413 Las Palmas, Spain
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Hughes K, Scase TJ, Foote AK. Estrogen Receptor and Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 Expression in Equine Mammary Tumors. Vet Pathol 2014; 52:631-4. [PMID: 25421423 DOI: 10.1177/0300985814559400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Equine mammary tumors are uncommon, and relatively sparse histopathologic and molecular data exist. The present study describes the histopathologic features of 7 such tumors, which exhibited infiltrative growth, intermediate to high mitotic rates, and focally extensive necrosis. The tumors exhibited variably strong staining for vimentin and cytokeratin 14, as well as frequently weak cytoplasmic staining for pan-cytokeratin. E-cadherin expression was strong. Interestingly, a subgroup of the tumors exhibited strong nuclear staining for estrogen receptor α. Three of 7 tumors exhibited nuclear expression of the transcription factor STAT3, suggesting that STAT3 was transcriptionally active. Rare to absent nuclear STAT3 expression was observed in carcinomas exhibiting moderate to intense staining for cytokeratin 14. This investigation confirms previous investigators' assertions that equine mammary tumors have a malignant phenotype. A subset of the equine mammary tumors exhibited estrogen receptor α expression, suggesting that these tumors may potentially have similar molecular characteristics to their feline and canine counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Hughes
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - T J Scase
- Bridge Pathology Ltd, Horner Court, Bristol, UK
| | - A K Foote
- Beaufort Cottage Laboratories, Newmarket, Suffolk, UK
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de Sant'Ana FJF, Carvalho FC, de O Gamba C, Cassali GD, Riet-Correa F, Schild AL. Mammary diffuse fibroadenomatoid hyperplasia in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis): three cases. J Vet Diagn Invest 2014; 26:453-456. [PMID: 24621849 DOI: 10.1177/1040638714526595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The current report describes 3 rare cases of mammary diffuse fibroadenomatoid hyperplasia in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). All of the animals were between 10 and 12 months of age. Grossly, the lesions consisted of severe diffuse swelling with homogeneous large masses in the udder. Surgical removal of the masses was curative. Microscopically, there was severe hyperplasia of the mammary epithelium and numerous well-differentiated and mildly pleomorphic acini and their associated ducts. Moderate proliferation of the fibrous connective tissue and the myoepithelial cells near the proliferating acini was also evident. The hyperplastic epithelial cells exhibited positive immunostaining for cytokeratin, estrogen receptors, and progesterone receptors. In addition, the myoepithelial cells displayed moderate positivity for alpha smooth muscle actin. Based on the clinical, morphologic, and immunohistochemical findings, a diagnosis of mammary diffuse fibroadenomatoid hyperplasia with probable hormonal influence was made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiano J F de Sant'Ana
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil (de Sant'Ana)Cooperativa Agroindustrial dos Produtores Rurais do Sudoeste Goiano, Santa Helena de Goiás, Goiás, Brazil (Carvalho)Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Gamba, Cassali)Veterinary Hospital, Federal University of Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil (Riet-Correa)Regional Laboratory of Diagnosis, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Schild)
| | - Fausto C Carvalho
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil (de Sant'Ana)Cooperativa Agroindustrial dos Produtores Rurais do Sudoeste Goiano, Santa Helena de Goiás, Goiás, Brazil (Carvalho)Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Gamba, Cassali)Veterinary Hospital, Federal University of Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil (Riet-Correa)Regional Laboratory of Diagnosis, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Schild)
| | - Conrado de O Gamba
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil (de Sant'Ana)Cooperativa Agroindustrial dos Produtores Rurais do Sudoeste Goiano, Santa Helena de Goiás, Goiás, Brazil (Carvalho)Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Gamba, Cassali)Veterinary Hospital, Federal University of Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil (Riet-Correa)Regional Laboratory of Diagnosis, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Schild)
| | - Geovanni D Cassali
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil (de Sant'Ana)Cooperativa Agroindustrial dos Produtores Rurais do Sudoeste Goiano, Santa Helena de Goiás, Goiás, Brazil (Carvalho)Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Gamba, Cassali)Veterinary Hospital, Federal University of Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil (Riet-Correa)Regional Laboratory of Diagnosis, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Schild)
| | - Franklin Riet-Correa
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil (de Sant'Ana)Cooperativa Agroindustrial dos Produtores Rurais do Sudoeste Goiano, Santa Helena de Goiás, Goiás, Brazil (Carvalho)Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Gamba, Cassali)Veterinary Hospital, Federal University of Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil (Riet-Correa)Regional Laboratory of Diagnosis, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Schild)
| | - Ana L Schild
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil (de Sant'Ana)Cooperativa Agroindustrial dos Produtores Rurais do Sudoeste Goiano, Santa Helena de Goiás, Goiás, Brazil (Carvalho)Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Gamba, Cassali)Veterinary Hospital, Federal University of Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil (Riet-Correa)Regional Laboratory of Diagnosis, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Schild)
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Sharkey LC, Seelig DM, Overmann J. All lesions great and small, part 1: Diagnostic cytology in veterinary medicine. Diagn Cytopathol 2014; 42:535-43. [DOI: 10.1002/dc.23097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leslie C Sharkey
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; University of Minnesota; St Paul Minnesota
| | - Davis M. Seelig
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; University of Minnesota; St Paul Minnesota
| | - Jed Overmann
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; University of Minnesota; St Paul Minnesota
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Smiet E, Grinwis GCM, van den Top JGB, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM. Equine mammary gland disease with a focus on botryomycosis: A review and case study. EQUINE VET EDUC 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2011.00352.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Gamba CO, Araújo MR, Palhares MS, Garbin LC, Maranhão RPA, Cassali GD, Ecco R. Invasive micropapillary carcinoma of the mammary glands in a mare. Vet Q 2011; 31:207-10. [PMID: 22151006 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2011.642618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- C O Gamba
- Laboratorio de Patologia Comparada, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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Abstract
Mammary tumors of all types are rare in herbivores, and there is a particular paucity of reports in sheep. The present report describes a case of mammary carcinoma in a 6-year-old uniparous ewe. The tumor was present for at least 18 months, during which time the ewe remained clinically well. At postmortem examination, the mass was found to be multilobulated with occasional cysts. Histologically, the lobules consisted of tubules lined by cuboidal to low columnar epithelium with loss of polarity and moderate anisokaryosis within a moderately extensive fibrous stroma. It was classified as a low-grade carcinoma. The histologic classification and lack of evidence of invasion correlated well with the slow clinical progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Máire C McElroy
- Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Backweston Campus, Celbridge, County Kildare, Ireland.
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Sharp JA, Mailer SL, Thomson PC, Lefèvre C, Nicholas KR. Identification and transcript analysis of a novel wallaby (Macropus eugenii) basal-like breast cancer cell line. Mol Cancer 2008; 7:1. [PMID: 18179684 PMCID: PMC2263075 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-7-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2007] [Accepted: 01/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A wide variety of animal models have been used to study human breast cancer. Murine, feline and canine mammary tumor cell lines have been studied for several decades and have been shown to have numerous aspects in common with human breast cancer. It is clear that new comparative approaches to study cancer etiology are likely to be productive. Results A continuous line of breast carcinoma cells (WalBC) was established from a primary breast cancer that spontaneously arose in a female tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii). The primary tumor was 1.5 cm3 and although large, did not appear to invade the stroma and lacked vimentin expression. The WalBC cell line was cultured from the primary tumor and passaged for 22 months. WalBC cells displayed an epithelial morphology when grown on plastic, were not EGF responsive, stained strongly for cyto-keratin and negatively for vimentin. WalBC cells were shown to be non-invasive within a Matrigel invasion assay and failed to produce tumors following transplantation into nude mice. Gene expression profiling of WalBC cells was performed using a cDNA microarray of nearly 10,000 mammary gland cDNA clones and compared to normal primary mammary cells and profiles of human breast cancer. Seventy-six genes were down-regulated and sixty-six genes were up-regulated in WalBC cells when compared to primary mammary cells. WalBC cells exhibited expression of known markers of basal invasive human breast cancers as well as increased KRT17, KRT 14 and KRT 19, DSP, s100A4, NDRG-1, ANXA1, TK1 and AQP3 gene expression and decreased gene expression of TIMP3, VIM and TAGLN. New targets for breast cancer treatment were identified such as ZONAB, PACSIN3, MRP8 and SUMO1 which have human homologues. Conclusion This study demonstrates how novel models of breast cancer can provide new fundamental clues regarding cancer etiology which may lead to new human treatments and therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Sharp
- CRC for Innovative Dairy Products, Department of Zoology, University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
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