Airborne Doppler lidar measurements

Identification of Aircraft Wake Vortex Based on VGGNet

The exploration of information for aircraft wake vortex enables us to obtain new knowledge of wake turbulence separation standards. Traditional manual methods cannot work satisfactorily for the identification of great number of wake vortex data with high accuracy. Fortunately, the LiDAR intensity data can be explained by integrating LiDAR products with the strategies of computer vision. To overcome the limitation of traditional manual methods, this paper is aimed at developing an automatic method to identify a given set of wake vortices from various aircrafts. The main innovation works are outlined as follows. (1) From the wake vortex data that consists of various aircrafts measured by Wind3D 6000 LiDAR, a grayscale dataset of wake flow is constructed to boost the deep learning model for identifying aircraft wake vortex. (2) Following this, we propose a new method for the identification of aircraft wake vortex by modifying the VGG16 network, providing binary classifications of uncertain behavior patterns for wake vortices. To evaluate the proposed identification model, performance evaluation was conducted on our dataset, where experimental results revealed the values of 0.984, 0.951, 0.959, and 0.955 in terms of accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score, respectively.

Ocean Backscatter Profiling Using High-Spectral-Resolution Lidar and a Perturbation Retrieval

Ocean lidar attenuation and scattering parameters were derived from a high-spectral-resolution lidar (HSRL) using two different retrieval techniques. The first used the standard HSRL retrieval, and the second used only the total backscatter channel and a perturbation retrieval (PR). The motivation is to evaluate differences between the two techniques that would affect the decision of whether to use a simple backscatter lidar or a more complex HSRL in future applications. For the data set investigated, the attenuation coefficient from the PR was an average of 11% lower than that from the HSRL. The PR estimate of the scattering parameter decreased with depth relative to the HSRL estimate, although the overall bias was zero as a result of the calibration procedure. Near the surface, the coefficient of variability in both estimates of attenuation and in HSRL estimates of scattering were around 5%, but that in the PR estimate of scattering was over 10%. At greater depths, the variability increases for all of the profile parameters. The correlation between the two estimates of attenuation coefficient was 0.7. The correlation between scattering parameters was > 0.8 near the surface, but decreased to 0.4 at a depth of around 20 m. Overall, the PR performed better relative to the HSRL in offshore waters than in nearshore waters.

First-order approximation error analysis of Risley-prism-based beam directing system

To improve the performance of a Risley-prism system for optical detection and measuring applications, it is necessary to be able to determine the direction of the outgoing beam with high accuracy. In previous works, error sources and their impact on the performance of the Risley-prism system have been analyzed, but their numerical approximation accuracy was not high. Besides, pointing error analysis of the Risley-prism system has provided results for the case when the component errors, prism orientation errors, and assembly errors are certain. In this work, the prototype of a Risley-prism system was designed. The first-order approximations of the error analysis were derived and compared with the exact results. The directing errors of a Risley-prism system associated with wedge-angle errors, prism mounting errors, and bearing assembly errors were analyzed based on the exact formula and the first-order approximation. The comparisons indicated that our first-order approximation is accurate. In addition, the combined errors produced by the wedge-angle errors and mounting errors of the two prisms together were derived and in both cases were proved to be the sum of errors caused by the first and the second prism separately. Based on these results, the system error of our prototype was estimated. The derived formulas can be implemented to evaluate beam directing errors of any Risley-prism beam directing system with a similar configuration.

Speckle-based three-dimensional velocity measurement using spatial filtering velocimetry

We present an optical method for measuring the real-time three-dimensional (3D) translational velocity of a diffusely scattering rigid object observed through an imaging system. The method is based on a combination of the motion of random speckle patterns and regular fringe patterns. The speckle pattern is formed in the observation plane of the imaging system due to reflection from an area of the object illuminated by a coherent light source. The speckle pattern translates in response to in-plane translation of the object, and the presence of an angular offset reference wave coinciding with the speckle pattern in the observation plane gives rise to interference, resulting in a fringe pattern that translates in response to the out-of-plane translation of the object. Numerical calculations are performed to evaluate the dynamic properties of the intensity distribution and the response of realistic spatial filters designed to measure the three components of the object's translational velocity. Furthermore, experimental data are presented that demonstrate full 3D velocity measurement.

Semianalytic pulsed coherent laser radar equation for coaxial and apertured systems using nearest Gaussian approximation

We present a semianalytic pulsed coherent laser radar (CLR) equation for coaxial and apertured systems. It combines the conventional CLR equation, numerical Fresnel integration (NFI), and nearest Gaussian approximation, using correction factors that correspond to beam truncation. The range dependence of the signal-to-noise ratio obtained by this semianalytic equation was found to agree well with the precise NFI solution for not only the focal range, but also the near-field range. Furthermore, the optimum beam truncation condition depending on the atmospheric refractive index structure constant is shown. The derived equation is useful for precisely predicting the CLR performance simply by its semianalytic expression.

Compact all-fiber pulsed coherent Doppler lidar system for wind sensing

A compact 1.5 microm all-fiber pulsed coherent Doppler lidar system for wind sensing, which includes the functions of variable pulse width and automatic polarization control has been developed. The system configuration is introduced and key components used in the system are explained. Theoretical performances of the system in wind sensing are estimated and compared with experimental results. The measurable range corresponding to the detection probability of >80% is approximately 1 km or more in the case of 150 m range resolution under the normal atmospheric conditions.

Autonomous beam alignment for coherent Doppler lidar with multielement detectors

Autonomous beam alignment for coherent Doppler lidar requires accurate information about optical misalignment and optical aberrations. A multielement heterodyne detector provides the required information without a loss in overall system performance. The effects of statistical variations from the random backscattered field (speckle field) are determined with computer simulations for both ground-based operation with a fixed calibration target and for space-based operation with random target backscatter.

Extracting vertical winds from simulated clouds with ground-based coherent Doppler lidar

The performance of mean velocity estimators is determined by computer simulations for solid-state coherent Doppler lidar measurements of wind fields at a cloud interface with deterministic profiles of velocity and aerosol backscatter. Performance of the velocity estimates is characterized by the standard deviation about the estimated mean and the bias referenced to the input velocity. A new class of estimators are required for cloud conditions, as traditional techniques result in biased estimates. We consider data with high signal energy that produces negligible random outliers.

Three-dimensional images generated by quadrature interferometry

Quadrature detection techniques have been applied to images obtained from a Mach-Zehnder interferometer with differently polarized beams to yield the real and the imaginary parts of the diffracted fields simultaneously. This approach eliminates the need for phase retrieval by providing complete information on the complex amplitude of the diffracted signal. We present results in which we demonstrate our ability to reconstruct two- and three-dimensional microscopic objects from their complex diffraction patterns.

Quadrature detection of a Doppler signal

We have employed a quadrature detection technique to measure theDoppler signal from a moving target. We mix a circularly polarizedreference with a linearly polarized signal to produce an output thatcontains the real and the imaginary parts of the interference field inthe two output polarizations. We are thus able to measure thein-phase and the quadrature components of an interferometric signalsimultaneously by splitting the output with a polarizing beamsplitter. We present data that demonstrate our ability through thistechnique to obtain both the amplitude and the frequency of vibrationof an audio speaker. We also demonstrate the technique's abilityto give one access to the direction of motion and instantaneousposition of the target.

Remote sensing of multi-level wind fields with high-energy airborne scanning coherent Doppler lidar

The atmospheric lidar remote sensing groups of NOAA Environmental Technology Laboratory, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, and Jet Propulsion Laboratory have developed and flown a scanning, 1 Joule per pulse, CO2 coherent Doppler lidar capable of mapping a three-dimensional volume of atmospheric winds and aerosol backscatter in the planetary boundary layer, free troposphere, and lower stratosphere. Applications include the study of severe and non-severe atmospheric flows, intercomparisons with other sensors, and the simulation of prospective satellite Doppler lidar wind profilers. Examples of wind measurements are given for the marine boundary layer and near the coastline of the western United States.

Evaluation of coherent Doppler lidar velocity estimators in nonstationary regimes

We evaluate the mean velocity estimator performance for coherent Doppler lidar measurements of wind fields with wind shear and nonuniform system response as a function of target range. Performance of the velocity estimates is characterized by the bias and standard deviation that are determined by computer simulations. Results are for solid-state lasers with a Gaussian transmitted pulse. We consider data with high signal energy that produces negligible random outliers.

Edge technique Doppler lidar wind measurements with high vertical resolution

We have developed a Doppler lidar system using the edge technique and have made atmospheric lidar wind measurements. Line-of-sight wind profiles with a vertical resolution of 22 m have a standard deviation of 0.40 m /s for a ten-shot average. Day and night lidar measurements of the vector wind have been made for altitudes from 200 to 2000 m. We validated the lidar measurements by comparing them with independent rawinsonde and pilot balloon measurements of wind speed and direction. Good agreement was obtained. The instrumental noise for these data is 0.11 m /s for a 500-shot average, which is in good agreement with the observed minimum value of the standard deviation for the atmospheric measurements. The average standard deviation over 30 mins varied from 1.16 to 0.25 m /s for day and night, respectively. High spatial and temporal resolution lidar profiles of line-of-sight winds clearly show wind shear and turbulent features at the 1 -2-m /s level with a high signal-to-noise ratio and demonstrate the potential of the edge-technique lidar for studying turbulent processes and atmospheric dynamics.

Signal processing and calibration of continuous-wave focused CO(2) Doppler lidars for atmospheric backscatter measurement

Two continuous-wave (CW) focused CO(2) Doppler lidars (9.1 and 10.6 µm) were developed for airborne in situ aerosol backscatter measurements. The complex path of reliably calibrating these systems, with different signal processors, for accurate derivation of atmospheric backscatter coefficients is documented. Lidar calibration for absolute backscatter measurement for both lidars is based on range response over the lidar sample volume, not solely at focus. Both lidars were calibrated with a new technique using well-characterized aerosols as radiometric standard targets and related to conventional hard-target calibration. A digital signal processor (DSP), a surface acoustic wave spectrum analyzer, and manually tuned spectrum analyzer signal analyzers were used. The DSP signals were analyzed with an innovative method of correcting for systematic noise fluctuation; the noise statistics exhibit the chi-square distribution predicted by theory. System parametric studies and detailed calibration improved the accuracy of conversion from the measured signal-to-noise ratio to absolute backscatter. The minimum backscatter sensitivity is ~3 × 10(-12) m(-1) sr(-1) at 9.1 µm and ~9 × 10(-12) m(-1) sr(-1) at 10.6 µm. Sample measurements are shown for a flight over the remote Pacific Ocean in 1990 as part of the NASA Global Backscatter Experiment (GLOBE) survey missions, the first time to our knowledge that 9.1-10.6-µm lidar intercomparisons were made. Measurements at 9.1 µm, a potential wavelength for space-based lidar remote-sensing applications, are to our knowledge the first based on the rare isotope (12)C (18)O(2) gas.

Lidar calibration technique using laboratory-generated aerosols

A new calibration technique for continuous-wave Doppler lidars that uses an aerosol scattering target has been developed. Calibrations with both single- and many-particle scattering were performed at the same lidar operating conditions as in atmospheric measurements. The calibrating targets, simulating atmospheric aerosols, were laboratory-generated spherical silicone oil droplets with known complex refractive indices and sizes, hence with known single-particle backscatter cross sections as obtained from Mie theory. Measurements of lidar efficiency with the conventional hard target calibration method were consistently higher by a factor of ~2 than measurements with the aerosol calibration technique. This result may have important implications for lidar backscatter estimates both for aerosol modeling efforts and for optimal design of future lidar systems. The aerosol calibration method provides a validation of basic lidar theory for particle scattering for coherent detection.

Measurement of a wind field with an airborne continuous-wave Doppler lidar

An airborne homodyne conical scanning Doppler lidar for the measurement of a wind field has been built and was operated in a first test flight in May 1994. The design of the optic is described, and the single steps of the signal-processing chain to calculate an average wind are discussed. The results of a flight over Lake Ammersee are presented and are compared with the data obtained from the inertial reference system of the aircraft.

Coherent Doppler lidar signal covariance including wind shear and wind turbulence

The performance of a coherent Doppler lidar is determined by the statistics of the coherent Doppler signal. The derivation and calculation of the covariance of the Doppler lidar signal for random atmospheric wind fields and wind shear are presented. The signal parameters are defined for a general coherent Doppler lidar system in terms of the atmospheric parameters. There are two distinct physical regimes: one in which the transmitted pulse determines the signal statistics and the other in which the wind field and the atmospheric parameters dominate the signal statistics. When the wind fields dominate the signal statistics, Doppler lidar data are nonstationary and the signal correlation time is proportional to the operating wavelength of the lidar. The signal covariance is derived for signal-shot and multiple-shot conditions. For a single shot, the parameters of the signal covariance depend on the random, instantaneous atmospheric parameters. For multiple shots, various levels of ensemble averaging over the t emporal scales of the atmospheric processes are required. The wind turbulence is described by a Kolmogorov spectrum with an outer scale of turbulence. The effects of the wind turbulence are demonstrated with calculations for a horizontal propagation path in the atmospheric surface layer.