Pulsed Raman fiber laser and multispectral imaging in three dimensions

Combination of the two styles of the multiple-wavelength range-gated active imaging principle for four-dimensional imaging

Having previously reported the foundations of the multiple-wavelength range-gated active imaging (WRAI) principle in juxtaposed style and in superimposed style, its use in combination of both styles was studied. The juxtaposed style consists of restoring the 3D scene directly. Each emitted light pulse with a different wavelength corresponds to a visualized zone with a different distance in the scene. In superimposed style, each wavelength is superimposed in the scene at a specific moment in time. By combining these two styles and independently of the video frequency, it is possible to deduce the trajectory and direction of the object in 3D space as well as its speed between two consecutive positions from a single recorded image. Furthermore, with the help of range gating, the object visibility through scattering environments is improved. In order to separate both styles in the image, the wavelengths were separated into warm colors for depth and cold colors for time. The experimental tests confirmed the ability to record a moving object in a 4D space represented by a single image, thus validating the combined WRAI principle.

Optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy with ultrafast dual-wavelength excitation

Fast functional and molecular photoacoustic microscopy requires pulsed laser excitations at multiple wavelengths with enough pulse energy and short wavelength-switching time. Recent development of stimulated Raman scattering in optical fiber offers a low-cost laser source for multiwavelength photoacoustic imaging. In this approach, long fibers temporally separate different wavelengths via optical delay. The time delay between adjacent wavelengths may eventually limits the highest A-line rate. In addition, a long-time delay in fiber may limit the highest pulse energy, leading to poor image quality. In order to achieve high pulse energy and ultrafast dual-wavelength excitation, we present optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy with ultrafast dual-wavelength excitation and a signal separation method. The signal separation method is validated in numerical simulation and phantom experiments. We show that when two photoacoustic signals are partially overlapped with a 50-ns delay, they can be recovered with 98% accuracy. We apply this ultrafast dual-wavelength excitation technique to in vivo OR-PAM. Results demonstrate that A-lines at two wavelengths can be successfully separated, and sO₂ values can be reliably computed from the separated data. The ultrafast dual-wavelength excitation enables fast functional photoacoustic microscopy with negligible misalignment among different wavelengths and high pulse energy, which is important for in vivo imaging of microvascular dynamics.

Photoacoustic imaging of microenvironmental changes in facial cupping therapy

As a traditional medicine practice, cupping therapy has been widely used to relieve symptoms like fatigue, tension, and muscle pain. During the therapy, negative pressure is applied to the skin for a while with an intention to enhance blood circulation or induce micro-bleeding. The therapeutic effect, however, is not clear due to the lack of direct quantification. Aiming at a quantitative assessment of the treatment effect, we explore optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM) in monitoring the structural and functional changes after cupping. We find that, after 5-minutes of ∼ 20 kPa negative pressure cupping, more capillaries appear in the focus, and micro-blooding is observed from the capillaries. We quantify the images and find the blood vessel density is increased by 64%, and the total hemoglobin concentration in both the veins and the arteries exhibits 62% and 40% elevation, respectively. Oxygen saturation in the vein and artery decreased by 17% and 3% right after cupping, respectively. After two hours of recovery, the three blood-related parameters return to their original levels, indicating that the effects in the tissue last only a short period after cupping at the given pressure and time duration. Note that no significant cupping marks are induced with the treatment parameters in this study. This work proposes OR-PAM to quantitatively monitor and evaluate the effect of cupping therapy from the perspective of imaging. The method is also useful for accurate control of the therapeutic outcome.

Multiple-wavelength range-gated active imaging in superimposed style for moving object tracking

Having laid down previously the foundations of the multiple-wavelength range-gated active imaging (WRAI) principle in flash mode and accumulation mode, its use in superimposed style for the direct tracking of moving objects was studied. The movement is supposed to be in a transverse plane of the scene. Each emitted laser pulse with a different wavelength visualizes the object at a specific time. Therefore, the wavelength set allows us to freeze the different positions of the object in the recorded image according to the laser emission period. Thus, in each recorded image, the object trajectory can be visualized directly according to these specific moments, allowing us to deduce the speed and the acceleration of the object at the same time. Another advantage, especially when the object trajectory is unpredictable, is that the wavelength progression indicates the trajectory direction. The principle being independent of the video frequency, the object speed can be very high. Furthermore, the range gating allows improvement of the object visibility through scattering environments. Three cases were identified and studied in superimposed style. Although the first case has not been used with range gating, it allowed us to show the possibility of using a traditional color camera. On the other hand, the two cases applying range gating required management of the exposure time. In each case, the temporal behavior was studied, as well as the possible speeds according to the object distance. The experimental test results validated the theoretical part and the possibility to determine the trajectory and the speed of a moving object with the WRAI principle in superimposed style.

Multiple-wavelength range-gated active imaging principle in the accumulation mode for three-dimensional imaging

Having laid the foundations of the multiple-wavelength range-gated active imaging principle in flash mode in a previous paper, we have been studying its use in accumulation mode. Whatever the mode, the principle consists of restoring the 3D scene directly in a single image at the moment of recording with a camera. Each emitted light pulse with a different wavelength corresponds to a visualized zone with a different distance in the scene. So each of these visualized zones is identified by a different wavelength. In flash mode, the camera shutter opens just once during the emission of light pulses with the different wavelengths. However, the energy constraints to restore scenes in three dimensions can lead to a change in the recording mode when moving from the flash mode to the accumulation mode. In this mode, the cycle, including a series of light pulses with the used wavelengths and an aperture of the camera shutter, is repeated several times for a given image recorded with the intensified camera. Each wavelength always corresponds to a visualized slice with a different distance in the scene. So, the accumulation enables increasing the illumination of every visualized slice. The modeling conducted in the previous paper must be completed to adapt it to this mode. The tests with a multiple-wavelength laser source confirmed the quality improvement of the recorded images for more remote scenes and validated the principle of restoring, directly in a color image, the three dimensions of a scene.

Active and passive imaging of clothes in the NIR and SWIR regions for reflectivity analysis

We perform statistical analysis of data from active and passive imaging sensors in the near infrared (NIR) and short wavelength infrared (SWIR) wavelength bands. The data were obtained from measurements performed on clothing in a field campaign and in the laboratory. We show that reflectivity data from active imaging can be fitted to Gaussian functions, although earlier theory proposes gamma-gamma functions. We analyze the reflectivity data collected during the field campaign and compare that data with data obtained in the laboratory. We focus on the added value of active imaging when combined with passive imaging to distinguish different clothes for friend/foe identification.

Direct method of three-dimensional imaging using the multiple-wavelength range-gated active imaging principle

The tomography executed with mono-wavelength active imaging systems uses the recording of several images to restore a three-dimensional (3D) scene. Thus, in order to show the depth in the scene, a different color is attributed to each recorded image. Therefore, the 3D restoration depends on the video frame rate of the camera. By using a multiple-wavelength range-gated active imaging system, it is possible to restore the 3D scene directly in a single image at the moment of recording with a video camera. Each emitted light pulse with a different wavelength corresponds to a visualized zone at a different distance in the scene. The camera shutter opens just once during the emission of light pulses with the different wavelengths. Thus, the restoration can be executed in real time with regard to the video frame rate of the camera. From an analytical model and from a graphical approach, we demonstrated the feasibility of this new method of 3D restoration. The non-overlapping conditions between two consecutive visualized zones are analyzed. The experimental test results confirm these different conditions and validate the theoretical principle to directly restore the 3D scene in a color image with a multiple-wavelength laser source, an RGB filter, and a triggerable intensified camera.

Gated viewing laser imaging with compressive sensing

We present a prototype of gated viewing laser imaging with compressive sensing (GVLICS). By a new framework named compressive sensing, it is possible for us to perform laser imaging using a single-pixel detector where the transverse spatial resolution is obtained. Moreover, combining compressive sensing with gated viewing, the three-dimensional (3D) scene can be reconstructed by the time-slicing technique. The simulations are accomplished to evaluate the characteristics of the proposed GVLICS prototype. Qualitative analysis of Lissajous-type eye-pattern figures indicates that the range accuracy of the reconstructed 3D images is affected by the sampling rate, the image's noise, and the complexity of the scenes.

Spectral LADAR: active range-resolved three-dimensional imaging spectroscopy

We present the concept and experimental results for Spectral LADAR, an augmented LADAR imager combining three-dimensional (3D) time-of-flight ranging with active multispectral sensing in the shortwave infrared (1080-1620 nm). The demonstrated technique is based on a nanosecond regime pulsed supercontinuum transmitter and spectrally multiplexed receiver that computes a high-resolution range value for each of 25 spectral bands. A low frame-rate prototype unit is described. Results demonstrating 3D imaging and material type classification of objects, especially those obscured by camouflage, are shown at effective stand-off ranges exceeding 40 m. These capabilities and the highly eye safe wavelengths at which the system operates make it suitable for applications in military imaging and robotic perception.

Image coding for three-dimensional range-gated imaging

In the present paper we discuss the method of image coding by multiple exposure of range-gated images. This method enlarges the depth mapping range of range-gated imaging systems exponentially with the number of utilized images. We developed a theoretical model to give a precise prediction of the number of permutations that can be used for image coding. For what we believe is the first time, we realized an image coding sequence for three range-gated images to enlarge the depth mapping range by a factor of 12. We demonstrate three-dimensional imaging in a range of 460 to 1000 m using a laser pulse width of 300 ns. Because of the impact of noise, a critical linking error occurs during the encoding of the intensity images. It is possible to reduce this error by the application of effective noise reduction strategies and the use of a threshold value to the tolerance drift of intensity levels.

Three-dimensional active imaging with maximum depth range

In traditional three-dimensional (3D) active imaging methods, the detection depth range is observed to increase linearly with the detection time, and the intensity information was not fully utilized. However, by encoding the relative values into pseudovalues, the intensity information was fully utilized, and we found the maximum detection depth range increases exponentially with the detection time. Furthermore, we present a 3D imaging system capable of exponentially expanding the detection depth range. A 3D scene reconstruction was undertaken with the targets placed at a distance of 600-1100 m. Experimental results indicate that the method expands the detection depth range exponentially without distance resolution loss as compared with the conventional method.

Multipulse gate-delayed range gating imaging lidar

We present a technique to reconstruct a higher resolution of depth map of range gating imaging lidar by applying the delays of the gates to a typical range gating lidar system during the detection of each returned laser pulse with the encoding of the returned signal. With the consequent delays of the gate, the depth of the scene is extended accordingly. A multipulse gate-delayed range gating lidar system is designed to prove the resolution improvement from 6 to 1.5 m. The unchanged peak power of the laser, the widths of the laser pulse and the sampling period result in a simple structure of the lidar system.

Evaluation metrics for range-gated active imaging systems using a Lissajous-type eye pattern

In this paper a new method to evaluate gated viewing systems and range-gated imaging sequences, using a Lissajous-type eye pattern, is presented. This approach enables the comparison of gated viewing systems and defines clear criteria for depth resolution and depth mapping capabilities of an active imaging system. A distinct parameter can be depicted and sensed within a single chart. Therefore, this approach is a first proposal for an evaluation procedure of gated viewing systems and an enhanced analysis tool in the means of 3D capabilities.

Improvement of range accuracy of range-gating laser radar using the centroid method

An improved processing approach based on the relation between range accuracy and slicing number is proposed to improve the range accuracy of range-gating laser radar. The sequence of time-slice images is segmented according to their optimal slicing number and processed in segments to achieve the range information of objects. Experimental results indicate that the slicing number has a significant impact on range accuracy, and the highest range accuracy can be achieved when the systems work with an optimal slicing number.

Semiconductor laser multi-spectral sensing and imaging

Multi-spectral laser imaging is a technique that can offer a combination of the laser capability of accurate spectral sensing with the desirable features of passive multispectral imaging. The technique can be used for detection, discrimination, and identification of objects by their spectral signature. This article describes and reviews the development and evaluation of semiconductor multi-spectral laser imaging systems. Although the method is certainly not specific to any laser technology, the use of semiconductor lasers is significant with respect to practicality and affordability. More relevantly, semiconductor lasers have their own characteristics; they offer excellent wavelength diversity but usually with modest power. Thus, system design and engineering issues are analyzed for approaches and trade-offs that can make the best use of semiconductor laser capabilities in multispectral imaging. A few systems were developed and the technique was tested and evaluated on a variety of natural and man-made objects. It was shown capable of high spectral resolution imaging which, unlike non-imaging point sensing, allows detecting and discriminating objects of interest even without a priori spectroscopic knowledge of the targets. Examples include material and chemical discrimination. It was also shown capable of dealing with the complexity of interpreting diffuse scattered spectral images and produced results that could otherwise be ambiguous with conventional imaging. Examples with glucose and spectral imaging of drug pills were discussed. Lastly, the technique was shown with conventional laser spectroscopy such as wavelength modulation spectroscopy to image a gas (CO). These results suggest the versatility and power of multi-spectral laser imaging, which can be practical with the use of semiconductor lasers.

Gain-modulated three-dimensional active imaging with depth-independent depth accuracy

We present a three-dimensional imaging method using a pulsed laser as a flood illuminating source and an intensified camera as the receiver with exponentially modulated gain. The depth map of a scene is obtained from two intensity images and the depth accuracy is independent of the depth of the target in the scene. We demonstrate a depth-independent depth accuracy of 0.32 m in an indoor experiment and obtain a depth map of an outdoor scene ranging from 150 to 180 m under a lower signal to noise ratio condition.

Pulse-shape-free method for long-range three-dimensional active imaging with high linear accuracy

We present a three-dimensional (3D) imaging method employing linear increasing gain to encode flying time of photons into intensity information. This method obtains both the reflectivity and the depth of scene from only two two-dimensional (2D) images. High linear accuracy between the depth and the intensity information is independent of the laser pulse shape. We demonstrated <1 m linear depth accuracies with two different kinds of laser pulse shape and a 3D scene reconstruction with supperresolution depth mapping when the targets are 800-1100 m away.

Long-range three-dimensional active imaging with superresolution depth mapping

We present a technique to overcome the depth resolution limitation for 3D active imaging. Applying microsecond laser pulses and sensor gate width, a scene of several hundred meters is illuminated and recorded in a single image. The trapezoid-shaped range intensity profile is analyzed to obtain both the reflectivity and the depth of scene. We demonstrate a 3D scene reconstruction in a depth of 650 to 1550 m from only three images with an accuracy of <30 m. This depth accuracy is 10 times better than estimated from the classical resolution limit obtained for depth scanning active imaging with a similar number of images. Therefore, this technique enables superresolution depth mapping with a reduction of image data processing.