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Sharma B, Gadi R. Analytical Tools and Methods for Explosive Analysis in Forensics: A Critical Review. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2023:1-27. [PMID: 37934616 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2023.2274927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
This review summarizes (i) compositions and types of improvised explosive devices; (ii) the process of collection, extraction and analysis of explosive evidence encountered in explosive and related cases; (iii) inter-comparison of analytical techniques; (iv) the challenges and prospects of explosive detection technology. The highlights of this study include extensive information regarding the National & International standards specified by USEPA, ASTM, and so on, for explosives detection. The holistic development of analytical tools for explosive analysis ranging from conventional methods to advanced analytical tools is also covered in this article. The most important aspect of this review is to make forensic scientists familiar with the challenges during explosive analysis and the steps to avoid them. The problems during analysis can be analyte-based, that is, interferences due to matrix or added molding/stabilizing agents, trace amount of parent explosives in post-blast samples and many more. Others are techniques-based challenges viz. specificity, selectivity, and sensitivity of the technique. Thus, it has become a primary concern to adopt rapid, field deployable, and highly sensitive techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhumika Sharma
- Department of Applied Sciences & Humanities, Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi, India
| | - Ranu Gadi
- Department of Applied Sciences & Humanities, Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi, India
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2
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Pal AK, Kumar N, Kshirsagar R. Pulsed-cavity ring down spectroscopic study of NO2 in 501–506 nm spectral region. Chem Phys 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphys.2021.111420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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3
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Costa C, van Es EM, Sears P, Bunch J, Palitsin V, Mosegaard K, Bailey MJ. Exploring Rapid, Sensitive and Reliable Detection of Trace Explosives Using Paper Spray Mass Spectrometry (PS‐MS). PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.201800320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Catia Costa
- Ion Beam CentreUniversity of Surrey Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH UK
| | - Elsje M. van Es
- National Physical Laboratory Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW UK
| | - Patrick Sears
- Defence Science and Technology Laboratory Sevenoaks, Kent TN14 7BP UK
| | - Josephine Bunch
- National Physical Laboratory Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW UK
| | | | - Kirsten Mosegaard
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Surrey Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH UK
| | - Melanie J. Bailey
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Surrey Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH UK
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Nabiev SS, Palkina LA. Modern technologies for detection and identification of explosive agents and devices. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY B 2017. [DOI: 10.1134/s1990793117050190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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5
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Detection and mapping of trace explosives on surfaces under ambient conditions using multiphoton electron extraction spectroscopy (MEES). Talanta 2016; 155:235-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2016.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Revised: 04/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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6
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Puiu A, Giubileo G, Cesaro SN, Bencivenni L. Comprehensive Infrared Study of Tetryl, Dinitrotoluene, and Trinitrotoluene Compounds. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2015; 69:1472-1486. [PMID: 26555761 DOI: 10.1366/14-07763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The present work describes an experimental and theoretical study of energetic materials used for detecting explosives in order to prevent terrorist actions, as well as for de-mining projects. Particular attention was devoted to examining the infrared absorption spectroscopy of classic explosives in order to create a useful mobile apparatus for on-field detection of explosives. This paper reports the vibrational absorption spectra of tetryl, dinitrotoluene, and trinitrotoluene molecules approached using two different spectroscopic techniques, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and laser photoacoustic spectroscopy (LPAS). Diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectra of all samples were analyzed in a very wide spectral range (400-7500 cm(-1)) showing for the first time the existence of weak absorption bands attributable to overtones or combination bands, while laser photoacoustic spectroscopy spectra have been investigated in the fingerprint region of organic compounds that share the CO2 laser emission range (~920-1100 cm(-1)). The Fourier transform infrared spectra of both matrix isolated dinitrotoluenes have been also investigated. The theoretical treatment of tetryl is reported for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Puiu
- ENEA, Diagnostic and Metrology Laboratory (FSN-TECFIS-DIM), Via E. Fermi 45, 00044 Frascati, Italy
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Serrano J, Moros J, Laserna JJ. Sensing Signatures Mediated by Chemical Structure of Molecular Solids in Laser-Induced Plasmas. Anal Chem 2015; 87:2794-801. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b00212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Serrano
- Universidad de Málaga, Departamento de Química Analítica, 29071 Málaga, España
| | - Javier Moros
- Universidad de Málaga, Departamento de Química Analítica, 29071 Málaga, España
| | - J. Javier Laserna
- Universidad de Málaga, Departamento de Química Analítica, 29071 Málaga, España
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8
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"Fooling fido"--chemical and behavioral studies of pseudo-explosive canine training aids. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:7817-25. [PMID: 25424725 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-8240-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/06/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Genuine explosive materials are traditionally employed in the training and testing of explosive-detecting canines so that they will respond reliably to these substances. However, challenges arising from the acquisition, storage, handling, and transportation of explosives have given rise to the development of "pseudo-explosive" training aids. These products attempt to emulate the odor of real explosives while remaining inert. Therefore, a canine trained on a pseudo-explosive should respond to its real-life analog. Similarly, a canine trained on an actual explosive should respond to the pseudo-explosive as if it was real. This research tested those assumptions with a focus on three explosives: single-base smokeless powder, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), and a RDX-based plastic explosive (Composition C-4). Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with solid phase microextraction as a pre-concentration technique, we determined that the volatile compounds given off by pseudo-explosive products consisted of various solvents, known additives from explosive formulations, and common impurities present in authentic explosives. For example, simulated smokeless powders emitted terpenes, 2,4-dinitrotoluene, diphenylamine, and ethyl centralite. Simulated TNT products emitted 2,4- and 2,6-dinitrotoluene. Simulated C-4 products emitted cyclohexanone, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, and dimethyldinitrobutane. We also conducted tests to determine whether canines trained on pseudo-explosives are capable of alerting to genuine explosives and vice versa. The results show that canines trained on pseudo-explosives performed poorly at detecting all but the pseudo-explosives they are trained on. Similarly, canines trained on actual explosives performed poorly at detecting all but the actual explosives on which they were trained.
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Bianchi F, Bedini A, Riboni N, Pinalli R, Gregori A, Sidisky L, Dalcanale E, Careri M. Cavitand-based solid-phase microextraction coating for the selective detection of nitroaromatic explosives in air and soil. Anal Chem 2014; 86:10646-52. [PMID: 25303228 DOI: 10.1021/ac5025045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A selective cavitand-based solid-phase microextraction coating was synthesized for the determination of nitroaromatic explosives and explosive taggants at trace levels in air and soil. A quinoxaline cavitand functionalized with a carboxylic group at the upper rim was used to enhance selectivity toward analytes containing nitro groups. The fibers were characterized in terms of film thickness, morphology, thermal stability, and pH resistance. An average coating thickness of 50 (±4) μm, a thermal stability until 400 °C, and an excellent fiber-to-fiber and batch to batch repeatability with RSD lower than 4% were obtained. The capabilities of the developed coating for the selective sampling of nitroaromatic explosives were proved achieving LOD values in the low ppbv and ng kg(-1) range, respectively, for air and soil samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Bianchi
- Dipartimento di Chimica and INSTM, UdR Parma, Università di Parma , Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
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Boyson TK, Rittman DR, Spence TG, Calzada ME, Kallapur AG, Petersen IR, Paul Kirkbride K, Moore DS, Harb CC. Pulsed quantum cascade laser based hypertemporal real-time headspace measurements. OPTICS EXPRESS 2014; 22:10519-10534. [PMID: 24921754 DOI: 10.1364/oe.22.010519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Optical cavity enhancement is a highly desirable process to make sensitive direct-absorption spectroscopic measurements of unknown substances, such as explosives, illicit material, or other species of interest. This paper reports advancements in the development of real-time cavity ringdown spectroscopy over a wide-bandwidth, with the aim to make headspace measurements of molecules at trace levels. We report results of two pulsed quantum cascade systems operating between (1200 to 1320)cm(-1) and (1316 to 1613)cm(-1) that measure the headspace of nitromethane, acetonitrile, acetone, and nitroglycerin, where the spectra are obtained in less than four seconds and contain at least 150,000 spectral wavelength datapoints.
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11
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Real-time vapor detection of nitroaromatic explosives by catalytic thermal dissociation blue diode laser cavity ring-down spectroscopy. Chem Phys Lett 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2013.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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12
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Fast and sensitive recognition of various explosive compounds using Raman spectroscopy and principal component analysis. J Mol Struct 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2013.01.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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13
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Tanner CM, Quack M. Reinvestigation of the ν2 + 2ν3subband in the overtone icosad of12CH4using cavity ring-down (CRD) spectroscopy of a supersonic jet expansion. Mol Phys 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/00268976.2012.702934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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14
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Current trends in explosive detection techniques. Talanta 2012; 88:14-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.11.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 350] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2011] [Revised: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 11/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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White JD, Akin FA, Oser H, Crosley DR. Production of the NO photofragment in the desorption of RDX and HMX from surfaces. APPLIED OPTICS 2011; 50:74-81. [PMID: 21221163 DOI: 10.1364/ao.50.000074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
A promising scheme for the remote detection of nitrate-based explosives, which have low vapor pressure, involves two lasers: the first to desorb, vaporize, and photofragment the explosive molecule and the second to create laser-induced fluorescence in the NO fragment. It is desirable to use for the first a powerful 532 nm frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser. In this study, we investigate the degree of photofragmentation into NO resulting from the irradiation of the explosives RDX and HMX coated on a variety of surfaces. The desorption step is followed by femtosecond laser ionization and time-of-flight mass spectrometry to reveal the fragments produced in the first step. We find that modest laser power of 532 nm desorbs the explosive and produces adequate amounts of NO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason D White
- Molecular Physics Laboratory, SRI International, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
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Detection and identification of TNT, 2,4-DNT and 2,6-DNT by near-infrared cavity ringdown spectroscopy. Chem Phys Lett 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2010.02.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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17
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Standoff detection of nitrotoluenes using 213-nm amplified spontaneous emission from nitric oxide. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 395:349-55. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2990-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2009] [Revised: 07/16/2009] [Accepted: 07/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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18
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Willer U, Schade W. Photonic sensor devices for explosive detection. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 395:275-82. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2934-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2009] [Revised: 06/23/2009] [Accepted: 06/23/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Tan Z, Long X, Yuan J, Huang Y, Zhang B. Precise wavelength calibration in continuous-wave cavity ringdown spectroscopy based on the HITRAN database. APPLIED OPTICS 2009; 48:2344-2349. [PMID: 19381187 DOI: 10.1364/ao.48.002344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We describe the wavelength calibration method of a narrowband laser diode in continuous-wave (CW) cavity ringdown spectroscopy (CRDS). The method uses known spectral lines as wavelength markers to calibrate and refine the wavelength-current relation of laser diodes, and their spectral positions are taken directly from the HITRAN 2004 database. We built a compact CW CRDS apparatus with a 1.517 microm (approximately 6594 cm-1) distributed feedback (DFB) laser diode as the light source and a 25 cm long glass ceramic as the cavity in which to demonstrate the method. A wavelength precision of approximately 0.8 x 10(-3) cm-1 was obtained by comparing the HITRAN 2004 database, which was approximately four times more precise than that of the conventional method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongqi Tan
- Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, College of Optoelectronic Science and Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China.
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Sun Y, Liu J, Frye-Mason G, Ja SJ, Thompson AK, Fan X. Optofluidic ring resonator sensors for rapid DNT vapor detection. Analyst 2009; 134:1386-91. [PMID: 19562206 DOI: 10.1039/b900050j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrated rapid 2,4-dinitrotoluene (DNT) vapor detection at room temperature based on an optofluidic ring resonator (OFRR) sensor. With the unique on-column separation and detection features of OFRR vapor sensors, DNT can be identified from other interferences coexisting in the analyte sample mixture, which is especially useful in the detection of explosives from practical complicated vapor samples usually containing more volatile analytes. The DNT detection limit is approximately 200 pg, which corresponds to a solid phase microextraction (SPME) sampling time of only 1 second at room temperature from equilibrium headspace. A theoretical analysis was also performed to account for the experimental results. Our study shows that the OFRR vapor sensor is a promising platform for the development of a rapid, low-cost, and portable analytical device for explosive detection and monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuze Sun
- Department of Biological Engineering, 240D Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, 1201 E. Rollins Street, Columbia, Missouri 65211, USA
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Comanescu G, Manka CK, Grun J, Nikitin S, Zabetakis D. Identification of explosives with two-dimensional ultraviolet resonance Raman spectroscopy. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2008; 62:833-839. [PMID: 18702854 DOI: 10.1366/000370208785284268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The first two-dimensional (2D) resonance Raman spectra of TNT, RDX, HMX, and PETN are measured with an instrument that sequentially and rapidly switches between laser wavelengths, illuminating these explosives with forty wavelengths between 210 nm and 280 nm. Two-dimensional spectra reflect variations in resonance Raman scatter with illumination wavelength, adding information not available from single or few one-dimensional spectra, thereby increasing the number of variables available for use in identification, which is especially useful in environments with contaminants and interferents. We have recently shown that 2D resonance Raman spectra can identify bacteria. Thus, a single device that identifies the presence of explosives, bacteria, and other chemicals in complex backgrounds may be feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gelu Comanescu
- Research Support Instruments, Lanham, Maryland 20706, USA
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Ramos C, Dagdigian PJ. Effect of photochemistry on molecular detection by cavity ringdown spectroscopy: case study of an explosive-related compound. APPLIED OPTICS 2007; 46:6526-32. [PMID: 17846646 DOI: 10.1364/ao.46.006526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Explosives and explosive-related compounds usually have dissociative excited electronic states. We consider the effect of excited-state dissociation upon an absorption event on the UV cavity ringdown spectroscopy (CRDS) detection of these molecules. A change in the photon decay lifetime with increasing laser energy is demonstrated with vapors of 2,6-dinitrotoluene in the open atmosphere. The magnitude of the effect is modeled with coupled equations describing the time-dependent light intensity and molecular concentration within the cavity. The light intensities required within this model to explain the observed changes in the photon decay lifetimes are consistent with the light intensities expected within the cavity under our experimental conditions. It was also found that the slow diffusion of the molecules in static air can magnify the effect of photochemistry on UV CRDS trace detection of molecules with dissociative excited states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Ramos
- Department of Chemistry, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218-2685, USA
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