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Komar K. Two-photon vision - Seeing colors in infrared. Vision Res 2024; 220:108404. [PMID: 38608547 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2024.108404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
This review discusses the current state of knowledge regarding the phenomenon called two-photon vision. It involves the visual perception of pulsed infrared beams in the range of 850-1200 nm as having colors corresponding to one-half of the IR wavelengths. It is caused by two-photon absorption (TPA), which occurs when the visual photopigment interacts simultaneously with two infrared photons. The physical mechanism of TPA is described, and implications about the efficiency of the process are considered. The spectral range of two-photon vision is defined, along with a detailed discussion of the known differences in color perception between normal and two-photon vision. The quadratic dependence of the luminance of two-photon stimuli on the power of the stimulating beam is also explained. Examples of recording two-photon vision in the retinas of mice and monkeys are provided from the literature. Finally, applications of two-photon vision are discussed, particularly two-photon microperimetry, which has been under development for several years; and the potential advantages of two-photon retinal displays are explained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Komar
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warsaw, Poland; Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, M. Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland; Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Grudziądzka 5, 87-100 Toruń, Poland.
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Marzejon MJ, Kornaszewski Ł, Wojtkowski M, Komar K. Laser pulse train parameters determine the brightness of a two-photon stimulus. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 14:2857-2872. [PMID: 37342710 PMCID: PMC10278621 DOI: 10.1364/boe.489890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
This report presents the results of measurements of the two-photon vision threshold for various pulse trains. We employed three pulsed near-infrared lasers and pulse stretchers to obtain variations of the pulse duty cycle parameter over three orders of magnitude. We proposed and extensively described a mathematical model that combines the laser parameters with the visual threshold value. The presented methodology enables one to predict the visual threshold value for a two-photon stimulus for a healthy subject while using a laser source of known parameters. Our findings would be of value to laser engineers and the community interested in nonlinear visual perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin J. Marzejon
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, M. Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Metrology and Optoelectronics, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Gdańsk University of Technology, G. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Łukasz Kornaszewski
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, M. Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Maciej Wojtkowski
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, M. Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Komar
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, M. Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Grudziądzka 5, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
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Palczewska G, Wojtkowski M, Palczewski K. From mouse to human: Accessing the biochemistry of vision in vivo by two-photon excitation. Prog Retin Eye Res 2023; 93:101170. [PMID: 36787681 PMCID: PMC10463242 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2023.101170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
The eye is an ideal organ for imaging by a multi-photon excitation approach, because ocular tissues such as the sclera, cornea, lens and neurosensory retina, are highly transparent to infrared (IR) light. The interface between the retina and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is especially informative, because it reflects the health of the visual (retinoid) cycle and its changes in response to external stress, genetic manipulations, and drug treatments. Vitamin A-derived retinoids, like retinyl esters, are natural fluorophores that respond to multi-photon excitation with near IR light, bypassing the filter-like properties of the cornea, lens, and macular pigments. Also, during natural aging some retinoids form bisretinoids, like diretinoid-pyridiniumethanolamine (A2E), that are highly fluorescent. These bisretinoids appear to be elevated concurrently with aging. Vitamin A-derived retinoids and bisretinoidss are detected by two-photon ophthalmoscopy (2PO), using a new class of light sources with adjustable spatial, temporal, and spectral properties. Furthermore, the two-photon (2P) absorption of IR light by the visual pigments in rod and cone photoreceptors can initiate visual transduction by cis-trans isomerization of retinal, enabling parallel functional studies. Recently we overcame concerns about safety, data interpretation and complexity of the 2P-based instrumentation, the major roadblocks toward advancing this modality to the clinic. These imaging and retina-function assessment advancements have enabled us to conduct the first 2P studies with humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazyna Palczewska
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA; International Center for Translational Eye Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland; Polgenix, Inc., Department of Medical Devices, Cleveland, OH, USA; Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Maciej Wojtkowski
- International Center for Translational Eye Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland; Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland; Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland.
| | - Krzysztof Palczewski
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA; Department of Physiology & Biophysics, School of Medicine, And Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.
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Stachowiak D, Marzejon M, Bogusławski J, Łaszczych Z, Komar K, Wojtkowski M, Soboń G. Femtosecond Er-doped fiber laser source tunable from 872 to 1075 nm for two-photon vision studies in humans. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 13:1899-1911. [PMID: 35519271 PMCID: PMC9045895 DOI: 10.1364/boe.452609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
We report the development of a widely-tunable femtosecond fiber laser system and its application for two-photon vision studies. The source is based on an Er-doped fiber laser with spectral shift up to 2150 nm, followed by a second harmonic generation module to generate a frequency-doubled beam tunable from 872 to 1075 nm. The source delivers sub-230 fs pulses with nearly-constant duration over the entire tuning range, with output powers between 0.68-1.24 mW, which corresponds to a pulse energy of 13.2-24.1 pJ. Such pulse energy is sufficient for employing a system for measurements of two-photon scotopic spectral sensitivity of two-photon vision in humans. The laser parameters allow for very efficient and safe two-photon stimulation of the human visual system, as proved by a good separation between one- and two-photon thresholds for wavelengths below 950 nm, which we have confirmed for 3 healthy subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Stachowiak
- Laser & Fiber Electronics Group, Faculty of Electronics, Photonics and Microsystems, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Marcin Marzejon
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Metrology and Optoelectronics, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Gdańsk University of Technology, G. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Jakub Bogusławski
- Laser & Fiber Electronics Group, Faculty of Electronics, Photonics and Microsystems, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
| | - Zbigniew Łaszczych
- Laser & Fiber Electronics Group, Faculty of Electronics, Photonics and Microsystems, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Komar
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Grudziądzka 5, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
| | - Maciej Wojtkowski
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Soboń
- Laser & Fiber Electronics Group, Faculty of Electronics, Photonics and Microsystems, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
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The Impact of the Spectral Radiation Environment on the Maximum Absorption Wavelengths of Human Vision and Other Species. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11121337. [PMID: 34947867 PMCID: PMC8707699 DOI: 10.3390/life11121337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the earliest development of the eye (and vision) around 530 million years ago (Mya), it has evolved, adapting to different habitats, species, and changing environmental conditions on Earth. We argue that a radiation environment determined by the atmosphere played a determining role in the evolution of vision, specifically on the human eye, which has three vision regimes (photopic-, scotopic-, and mesopic vision) for different illumination conditions. An analysis of the irradiance spectra, reaching the shallow ocean depths, revealed that the available radiation could have determined the bandwidth of the precursor to vision systems, including human vision. We used the radiative transfer model to test the existing hypotheses on human vision. We argue that, once on the surface, the human photopic (daytime) and scotopic (night-time) vision followed different evolutionary directions, maximum total energy, and optimum information, respectively. Our analysis also suggests that solar radiation reflected from the moon had little or no influence on the evolution of scotopic vision. Our results indicate that, apart from human vision, the vision of only a few birds, rodents, and deep-sea fish are strongly correlated to the available radiation within their respective habitats.
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Zielinska A, Ciacka P, Szkulmowski M, Komar K. Pupillary Light Reflex Induced by Two-Photon Vision. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2021; 62:23. [PMID: 34935882 PMCID: PMC8711009 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.62.15.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Two-photon vision relies on the perception of pulsed infrared light due to two-photon absorption in visual pigments. This study aimed to measure human pupil reaction caused by a two-photon 1040-nm stimulus and compare it with pupil responses elicited by 520-nm stimuli of similar color. Methods Pupillary light reflex (PLR) was induced on 14 dark-adapted healthy subjects. Three types of fovea-centered stimuli of 3.5° diameter were tested: spirals formed by fast scanning 1040-nm (infrared [IR] laser) or 520-nm (visible [VIS] laser) laser beams and uniformly filled circle created by 520-nm LED (VIS light-emitting diode [LED]). The power of visible stimuli was determined with a dedicated procedure to obtain the same perceived brightness equivalent as for 800 µW used for two-photon stimulation. Results The minimum pupil diameter for IR laser was 88% ± 10% of baseline, significantly larger than for both VIS stimuli: 74% ± 10% (laser) and 69% ± 9% (LED). Mean constriction velocity and time to maximum constriction had significantly smaller values for IR than for both VIS stimuli. Latency times were similar for IR and VIS lasers and slightly smaller for VIS LED. Conclusions The two-photon stimulus caused a considerably weaker pupil reaction than one-photon stimuli of the same shape, brightness, and similar color. The smaller pupil response may be due to weaker two-photon stimulation of rods relative to cones as previously observed for two-photon vision. Contrary to normal vision, in a two-photon process the stray light is not perceived, which might reduce the number of stimulated photoreceptors and further weaken the PLR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Zielinska
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Piotr Ciacka
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Warsaw, Poland.,Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Maciej Szkulmowski
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Komar
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland.,International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Warsaw, Poland.,Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
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Marzejon MJ, Kornaszewski Ł, Bogusławski J, Ciąćka P, Martynow M, Palczewska G, Maćkowski S, Palczewski K, Wojtkowski M, Komar K. Two-photon microperimetry with picosecond pulses. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2021; 12:462-479. [PMID: 33659083 PMCID: PMC7899501 DOI: 10.1364/boe.411168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon vision is a phenomenon associated with the perception of short pulses of near-infrared radiation (900-1200 nm) as a visible light. It is caused by the nonlinear process of two-photon absorption by visual pigments. Here we present results showing the influence of pulse duration and repetition rate of short pulsed lasers on the visual threshold. We compared two-photon sensitivity maps of the retina obtained for subjects with normal vision using a cost-effective fiber laser (λc = 1028.4 nm, τp = 12.2 ps, Frep = 19.17 MHz) and a solid-state laser (λc = 1043.3 nm, τp = 0.253 ps, Frep = 62.65 MHz). We have shown that in accordance with the description of two-photon absorption, the average optical power required for two-photon vision for a fiber laser is 4 times greater than that for a solid-state laser. Mean sensitivity measured for the first one is 5.9 ± 2.8 dB lower than for the second but still 17 dB away from the safety limit, confirming that picosecond light sources can be successfully applied in microperimetry. This development would dramatically reduce the cost and complexity of future clinical devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin J. Marzejon
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland
- Department of Metrology and Optoelectronics, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Gdańsk University of Technology, G. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-223 Gdańsk, Poland
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Institute of Physical Chemistry, PAS, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
| | - Łukasz Kornaszewski
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Institute of Physical Chemistry, PAS, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
| | - Jakub Bogusławski
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Institute of Physical Chemistry, PAS, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
| | - Piotr Ciąćka
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Institute of Physical Chemistry, PAS, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
| | - Miłosz Martynow
- Baltic Institute of Technology, Al. Zwycięstwa 96/98, 81-451 Gdynia, Poland
- Department of Theoretical Physics and Quantum Information, Faculty of Applied Physics and Mathematics, Gdańsk University of Technology, G. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Grażyna Palczewska
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Institute of Physical Chemistry, PAS, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
- Polgenix, Inc., Department of Medical Devices, Cleveland OH 44106, USA
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Sebastian Maćkowski
- Baltic Institute of Technology, Al. Zwycięstwa 96/98, 81-451 Gdynia, Poland
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Grudziądzka 5, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Palczewski
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Institute of Physical Chemistry, PAS, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 926978, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 926978, USA
| | - Maciej Wojtkowski
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Institute of Physical Chemistry, PAS, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
- Baltic Institute of Technology, Al. Zwycięstwa 96/98, 81-451 Gdynia, Poland
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Grudziądzka 5, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Komar
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Institute of Physical Chemistry, PAS, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warszawa, Poland
- Baltic Institute of Technology, Al. Zwycięstwa 96/98, 81-451 Gdynia, Poland
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Grudziądzka 5, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
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