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Loewke NO, Qiu Z, Mandella MJ, Ertsey R, Loewke A, Gunaydin LA, Rosenthal EL, Contag CH, Solgaard O. Software-Based Phase Control, Video-Rate Imaging, and Real-Time Mosaicing With a Lissajous-Scanned Confocal Microscope. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MEDICAL IMAGING 2020; 39:1127-1137. [PMID: 31567074 PMCID: PMC8837204 DOI: 10.1109/tmi.2019.2942552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
We present software-based methods for automatic phase control and for mosaicing high-speed, Lissajous-scanned images. To achieve imaging speeds fast enough for mosaicing, we first increase the image update rate tenfold from 3 to 30 Hz, then vertically interpolate each sparse image in real-time to eliminate fixed pattern noise. We validate our methods by imaging fluorescent beads and automatically maintaining phase control over the course of one hour. We then image fixed mouse brain tissues at varying update rates and compare the resulting mosaics. Using reconstructed image data as feedback for phase control eliminates the need for phase sensors and feedback controllers, enabling long-term imaging experiments without additional hardware. Mosaicing subsampled images results in video-rate imaging speeds, nearly fully recovered spatial resolution, and millimeter-scale fields of view.
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Wang J, Zhang G, You Z. Design rules for dense and rapid Lissajous scanning. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2020; 6:101. [PMID: 34567710 PMCID: PMC8433367 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-020-00211-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Lissajous microscanners are very popular in compact laser-scanning applications, such as solid-state light detection and ranging (LIDAR), owing to their high-quality factor and low power consumption. In the Lissajous scanner driven by a two-axis micro-electro-mechanical system scanning mirror (MEMS-SM), the design theory is insufficient to meet the temporal and spatial resolution at the same time. In this paper, the greatest common divisor of the two-axis driving frequency is used as the temporal resolution, the concept of the fill factor (FF) is used to describe the spatial resolution of the scanner, and a general algorithm for calculating the FF is presented. Combined with the characteristics of the Lissajous trajectory, three design rules of the general Lissajous scanner are proposed, and the design theory of the Lissajous scanner enabling MEMS LIDAR is perfected. Experimental results show that the proposed design rules can effectively meet the LIDAR design requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junya Wang
- Department of Precision Instrument, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Testing Technology and Instruments, Tsinghua University, 10084 Beijing, China
- Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Gaofei Zhang
- Department of Precision Instrument, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Testing Technology and Instruments, Tsinghua University, 10084 Beijing, China
| | - Zheng You
- Department of Precision Instrument, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Testing Technology and Instruments, Tsinghua University, 10084 Beijing, China
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Zhuo GY, Su HC, Wang HY, Chan MC. In situ high-resolution thermal microscopy on integrated circuits. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 25:21548-21558. [PMID: 29041452 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.021548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The miniaturization of metal tracks in integrated circuits (ICs) can cause abnormal heat dissipation, resulting in electrostatic discharge, overvoltage breakdown, and other unwanted issues. Unfortunately, locating areas of abnormal heat dissipation is limited either by the spatial resolution or imaging acquisition speed of current thermal analytical techniques. A rapid, non-contact approach to the thermal imaging of ICs with sub-μm resolution could help to alleviate this issue. In this work, based on the intensity of the temperature-dependent two-photon fluorescence (TPF) of Rhodamine 6G (R6G) material, we developed a novel fast and non-invasive thermal microscopy with a sub-μm resolution. Its application to the location of hotspots that may evolve into thermally induced defects in ICs was also demonstrated. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to present high-resolution 2D thermal microscopic images of ICs, showing the generation, propagation, and distribution of heat during its operation. According to the demonstrated results, this scheme has considerable potential for future in situ hotspot analysis during the optimization stage of IC development.
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Chung HY, Kuo WC, Cheng YH, Yu CH, Chia SH, Lin CY, Chen JS, Tsai HJ, Fedotov AB, Ivanov AA, Zheltikov AM, Sun CK. Blu-ray disk lens as the objective of a miniaturized two-photon fluorescence microscope. OPTICS EXPRESS 2013; 21:31604-31614. [PMID: 24514733 DOI: 10.1364/oe.21.031604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we examine the performance of a Blu-ray disk (BD) aspheric lens as the objective of a miniaturized scanning nonlinear optical microscope. By combining a single 2D micro-electro mechanical system (MEMS) mirror as the scanner and with different tube lens pairs, the field of view (FOV) of the studied microscope varies from 59 μm × 93 μm up to 178 μm × 280 μm, while the corresponding lateral resolution varies from 0.6 μm to 2 μm for two-photon fluorescence (2PF) signals. With a 34/s video frame rate, in vivo dynamic observation of zebrafish heartbeat through 2PF of the excited green fluorescence protein (GFP) is demonstrated.
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Tsai CK, Chen YS, Wu PC, Hsieh TY, Liu HW, Yeh CY, Lin WL, Chia JS, Liu TM. Imaging granularity of leukocytes with third harmonic generation microscopy. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2012; 3:2234-43. [PMID: 23024916 PMCID: PMC3447564 DOI: 10.1364/boe.3.002234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2012] [Revised: 08/06/2012] [Accepted: 08/07/2012] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Using third harmonic generation (THG) microscopy, we demonstrate that granularity differences of leukocytes can be revealed without a label. Excited by a 1230 nm femtosecond laser, THG signals were generated at a significantly higher level in neutrophils than other mononuclear cells, whereas signals in agranular lymphocytes were one order of magnitude smaller. Interestingly, the characteristic THG features can also be observed in vivo to track the newly recruited leukocytes following lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. These results suggest that label-free THG imaging may provide timely tracking of leukocyte movement without disturbing the normal cellular or physiological status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Kun Tsai
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Shing Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Chun Wu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Yuan Hsieh
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Han-Wen Liu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chiou-Yueh Yeh
- Graduate Institute of immunology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Jen-Ai Road, Taipei 10048, Taiwan
| | - Win-Li Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Jean-San Chia
- Graduate Institute of immunology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Jen-Ai Road, Taipei 10048, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Ming Liu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
- Molecular Imaging Center, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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Cheng LC, Chang CY, Lin CY, Cho KC, Yen WC, Chang NS, Xu C, Dong CY, Chen SJ. Spatiotemporal focusing-based widefield multiphoton microscopy for fast optical sectioning. OPTICS EXPRESS 2012; 20:8939-48. [PMID: 22513605 DOI: 10.1364/oe.20.008939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a microscope based on spatiotemporal focusing offering widefield multiphoton excitation has been developed to provide fast optical sectioning images. Key features of this microscope are the integrations of a 10 kHz repetition rate ultrafast amplifier featuring high instantaneous peak power (maximum 400 μJ/pulse at a 90 fs pulse width) and a TE-cooled, ultra-sensitive photon detecting, electron multiplying charge-coupled camera into a spatiotemporal focusing microscope. This configuration can produce multiphoton images with an excitation area larger than 200 × 100 μm² at a frame rate greater than 100 Hz (current maximum of 200 Hz). Brownian motions of fluorescent microbeads as small as 0.5 μm were observed in real-time with a lateral spatial resolution of less than 0.5 μm and an axial resolution of approximately 3.5 μm. Furthermore, second harmonic images of chicken tendons demonstrate that the developed widefield multiphoton microscope can provide high resolution z-sectioning for bioimaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Chung Cheng
- Department of Photonics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
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Liang W, Murari K, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Li MJ, Li X. Increased illumination uniformity and reduced photodamage offered by the Lissajous scanning in fiber-optic two-photon endomicroscopy. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2012; 17:021108. [PMID: 22463026 PMCID: PMC3380935 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.17.2.021108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
We compare the illumination uniformity and the associated effects of the spiral and Lissajous scanning patterns that are commonly used in an endomicroscope. Theoretical analyses and numerical simulations were first performed to quantitatively investigate the area illumination density in the spiral scanning pattern. The results revealed the potential problem of manifest photodamage due to the very high illumination density in the center of the spiral scan. Similar analyses of the Lissajous scanning pattern, which can be conveniently implemented on the same endomicroscope with no hardware modifications, showed a more uniform illumination density with about an 80-fold reduction in the peak illumination density. To underscore the benefit offered by the improved illumination uniformity, we conducted in vitro two-photon fluorescence imaging of cultured cells stained with a LIVE/DEAD viability assay using our home-built, fiber-optic, two-channel endomicroscopy system. Both the spiral and the Lissajous scans were implemented. Our experimental results showed that cells near the spiral scan center experienced obvious photodamage, whereas cells remained alive over the entire region under the Lissajous beam scanning, confirming the predicted advantage offered by the Lissajous scan over this spiral scan in an endomicroscopy setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxuan Liang
- Johns Hopkins University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Kartikeya Murari
- Johns Hopkins University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Yuying Zhang
- Johns Hopkins University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Yongping Chen
- Johns Hopkins University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Ming-Jun Li
- Science and Technology Division, Corning Incorporated, SP-AR-02-2, Corning, New York 14831
| | - Xingde Li
- Johns Hopkins University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
- Address all correspondence to: Xingde Li, RM 731B, Ross Building, 720 Rutland Avenue, Baltimore. Tel: 410-955-0075; Fax: 410-502-9814; E-mail:
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Hoy CL, Durr NJ, Ben-Yakar A. Fast-updating and nonrepeating Lissajous image reconstruction method for capturing increased dynamic information. APPLIED OPTICS 2011; 50:2376-82. [PMID: 21629316 DOI: 10.1364/ao.50.002376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
We present a fast-updating Lissajous image reconstruction methodology that uses an increased image frame rate beyond the pattern repeat rate generally used in conventional Lissajous image reconstruction methods. The fast display rate provides increased dynamic information and reduced motion blur, as compared to conventional Lissajous reconstruction, at the cost of single-frame pixel density. Importantly, this method does not discard any information from the conventional Lissajous image reconstruction, and frames from the complete Lissajous pattern can be displayed simultaneously. We present the theoretical background for this image reconstruction methodology along with images and video taken using the algorithm in a custom-built miniaturized multiphoton microscopy system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher L Hoy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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Murugkar S, Smith B, Srivastava P, Moica A, Naji M, Brideau C, Stys PK, Anis H. Miniaturized multimodal CARS microscope based on MEMS scanning and a single laser source. OPTICS EXPRESS 2010; 18:23796-804. [PMID: 21164724 DOI: 10.1364/oe.18.023796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a novel miniaturized multimodal coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscope based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) scanning mirrors and custom miniature optics. A single Ti:sapphire femtosecond pulsed laser is used as the light source to produce the CARS, two photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF) and second harmonic generation (SHG) images using this miniaturized microscope. The high resolution and distortion-free images obtained from various samples such as a USAF target, fluorescent and polystyrene microspheres and biological tissue successfully demonstrate proof of concept, and pave the path towards future integration of parts into a handheld multimodal CARS probe for non- or minimally-invasive in vivo imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangeeta Murugkar
- School of Information Technology and Engineering (SITE), University of Ottawa 800 King Edward, P.O. Box 450, Stn A, Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada.
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Chia SH, Yu CH, Lin CH, Cheng NC, Liu TM, Chan MC, Chen IH, Sun CK. Miniaturized video-rate epi-third-harmonic-generation fiber-microscope. OPTICS EXPRESS 2010; 18:17382-91. [PMID: 20721125 DOI: 10.1364/oe.18.017382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
With a micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) mirror, we successfully developed a miniaturized epi-third-harmonic-generation (epi-THG) fiber-microscope with a video frame rate (31 Hz), which was designed for in vivo optical biopsy of human skin. With a large-mode-area (LMA) photonic crystal fiber (PCF) and a regular microscopic objective, the nonlinear distortion of the ultrafast pulses delivery could be much reduced while still achieving a 0.4 microm lateral resolution for epi-THG signals. In vivo real time virtual biopsy of the Asian skin with a video rate (31 Hz) and a sub-micron resolution was obtained. The result indicates that this miniaturized system was compact enough for the least invasive hand-held clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Hsuan Chia
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Graduate Inst of Photonics and Optoelectronics, Natl Taiwan Univ, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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Piyawattanametha W, Cocker ED, Burns LD, Barretto RPJ, Jung JC, Ra H, Solgaard O, Schnitzer MJ. In vivo brain imaging using a portable 2.9 g two-photon microscope based on a microelectromechanical systems scanning mirror. OPTICS LETTERS 2009; 34:2309-11. [PMID: 19649080 PMCID: PMC2826365 DOI: 10.1364/ol.34.002309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
We present a two-photon microscope that is approximately 2.9 g in mass and 2.0 x 1.9 x 1.1 cm(3) in size and based on a microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) laser-scanning mirror. The microscope has a focusing motor and a micro-optical assembly composed of four gradient refractive index lenses and a dichroic microprism. Fluorescence is captured without the detected emissions reflecting off the MEMS mirror, by use of separate optical fibers for fluorescence collection and delivery of ultrashort excitation pulses. Using this microscope we imaged neocortical microvasculature and tracked the flow of erythrocytes in live mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wibool Piyawattanametha
- James H. Clark Center for Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
- National Electronics and Computer Technology Center, Pathumthani, Thailand 12120
| | - Eric D. Cocker
- James H. Clark Center for Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Laurie D. Burns
- James H. Clark Center for Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Robert P. J. Barretto
- James H. Clark Center for Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Juergen C. Jung
- James H. Clark Center for Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Hyejun Ra
- Edward L. Ginzton Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Olav Solgaard
- Edward L. Ginzton Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Mark J. Schnitzer
- James H. Clark Center for Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
- Corresponding author:
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