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van der Reep THA, Molenaar D, Löffler W, Pinto Y. Quantum detector tomography applied to the human visual system: a feasibility study. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2023; 40:285-293. [PMID: 36821198 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.477639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
We show that quantum detector tomography can be applied to the human visual system to explore human perception of photon number states. In detector tomography, instead of using very hard-to-produce photon number states, the response of a detector to light pulses with known photon statistics of varying intensity is recorded, and a model is fitted to the experimental outcomes, thereby inferring the detector's photon number state response. Generally, light pulses containing a Poisson-distributed number of photons are utilized, which are very easy to produce in the lab. This technique has not been explored to study the human visual system before because it usually requires a very large number of repetitions not suitable for experiments on humans. Yet, in the present study we show that detector tomography is feasible for human experiments. Assuming a simple model for this accuracy, the results of our simulations show that detector tomography is able to reconstruct the model using Bayesian inference with as few as 5000 trials. We then optimize the experimental parameters in order to maximize the probability of showing that the single-photon accuracy is above chance. As such, our study opens the road to study human perception on the quantum level.
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Schapeler T, Philipp Höpker J, Bartley TJ. Quantum detector tomography of a 2×2 multi-pixel array of superconducting nanowire single photon detectors. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:33035-33043. [PMID: 33114973 DOI: 10.1364/oe.404285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate quantum detector tomography of a commercial 2×2 array of superconducting nanowire single photon detectors. We show that detector-specific figures of merit including efficiency, dark-count and cross-talk probabilities can be directly extracted, without recourse to the underlying detector physics. These figures of merit are directly identified from just four elements of the reconstructed positive operator valued measure (POVM) of the device. We show that the values for efficiency and dark-count probability extracted by detector tomography show excellent agreement with independent measurements of these quantities, and we provide an intuitive operational definition for cross-talk probability. Finally, we show that parameters required for the reconstruction must be carefully chosen to avoid oversmoothing the data.
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3
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Sperling J, Phillips DS, Bulmer JFF, Thekkadath GS, Eckstein A, Wolterink TAW, Lugani J, Nam SW, Lita A, Gerrits T, Vogel W, Agarwal GS, Silberhorn C, Walmsley IA. Detector-Agnostic Phase-Space Distributions. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2020; 124:013605. [PMID: 31976720 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.124.013605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The representation of quantum states via phase-space functions constitutes an intuitive technique to characterize light. However, the reconstruction of such distributions is challenging as it demands specific types of detectors and detailed models thereof to account for their particular properties and imperfections. To overcome these obstacles, we derive and implement a measurement scheme that enables a reconstruction of phase-space distributions for arbitrary states whose functionality does not depend on the knowledge of the detectors, thus defining the notion of detector-agnostic phase-space distributions. Our theory presents a generalization of well-known phase-space quasiprobability distributions, such as the Wigner function. We implement our measurement protocol, using state-of-the-art transition-edge sensors without performing a detector characterization. Based on our approach, we reveal the characteristic features of heralded single- and two-photon states in phase space and certify their nonclassicality with high statistical significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Sperling
- Integrated Quantum Optics Group, Applied Physics, University of Paderborn, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
| | - D S Phillips
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - J F F Bulmer
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - G S Thekkadath
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - A Eckstein
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - T A W Wolterink
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - J Lugani
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - S W Nam
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - A Lita
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - T Gerrits
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - W Vogel
- Institut für Physik, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 23, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - G S Agarwal
- Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77845, USA
| | - C Silberhorn
- Integrated Quantum Optics Group, Applied Physics, University of Paderborn, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
| | - I A Walmsley
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
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4
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Projective measurement onto arbitrary superposition of weak coherent state bases. Sci Rep 2018; 8:2999. [PMID: 29445101 PMCID: PMC5813249 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-21092-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the peculiar features in quantum mechanics is that a superposition of macroscopically distinct states can exist. In optical system, this is highlighted by a superposition of coherent states (SCS), i.e. a superposition of classical states. Recently this highly nontrivial quantum state and its variant have been demonstrated experimentally. Here we demonstrate the superposition of coherent states in quantum measurement which is also a key concept in quantum mechanics. More precisely, we propose and implement a projection measurement onto an arbitrary superposition of two weak coherent states in optical system. The measurement operators are reconstructed experimentally by a novel quantum detector tomography protocol. Our device is realized by combining the displacement operation and photon counting, well established technologies, and thus has implications in various optical quantum information processing applications.
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Sperling J, Eckstein A, Clements WR, Moore M, Renema JJ, Kolthammer WS, Nam SW, Lita A, Gerrits T, Walmsley IA, Agarwal GS, Vogel W. Identification of nonclassical properties of light with multiplexing layouts. PHYSICAL REVIEW. A 2017; 96:013804. [PMID: 29670949 PMCID: PMC5901769 DOI: 10.1103/physreva.96.013804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In Sperling et al. [Phys. Rev. Lett. 118, 163602 (2017)], we introduced and applied a detector-independent method to uncover nonclassicality. Here, we extend those techniques and give more details on the performed analysis. We derive a general theory of the positive-operator-valued measure that describes multiplexing layouts with arbitrary detectors. From the resulting quantum version of a multinomial statistics, we infer nonclassicality probes based on a matrix of normally ordered moments. We discuss these criteria and apply the theory to our data which are measured with superconducting transition-edge sensors. Our experiment produces heralded multiphoton states from a parametric down-conversion light source. We show that the known notions of sub-Poisson and sub-binomial light can be deduced from our general approach, and we establish the concept of sub-multinomial light, which is shown to outperform the former two concepts of nonclassicality for our data.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Sperling
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, England, United Kingdom
| | - A. Eckstein
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, England, United Kingdom
| | - W. R. Clements
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, England, United Kingdom
| | - M. Moore
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, England, United Kingdom
| | - J. J. Renema
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, England, United Kingdom
| | - W. S. Kolthammer
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, England, United Kingdom
| | - S. W. Nam
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - A. Lita
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - T. Gerrits
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - I. A. Walmsley
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, England, United Kingdom
| | - G. S. Agarwal
- Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77845, USA
| | - W. Vogel
- Institut für Physik, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 23, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
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6
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Sperling J, Clements WR, Eckstein A, Moore M, Renema JJ, Kolthammer WS, Nam SW, Lita A, Gerrits T, Vogel W, Agarwal GS, Walmsley IA. Detector-Independent Verification of Quantum Light. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2017; 118:163602. [PMID: 28474918 PMCID: PMC5894853 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.118.163602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We introduce a method for the verification of nonclassical light which is independent of the complex interaction between the generated light and the material of the detectors. This is accomplished by means of a multiplexing arrangement. Its theoretical description yields that the coincidence statistics of this measurement layout is a mixture of multinomial distributions for any classical light field and any type of detector. This allows us to formulate bounds on the statistical properties of classical states. We apply our directly accessible method to heralded multiphoton states which are detected with a single multiplexing step only and two detectors, which are in our work superconducting transition-edge sensors. The nonclassicality of the generated light is verified and characterized through the violation of the classical bounds without the need for characterizing the used detectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Sperling
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - W R Clements
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - A Eckstein
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - M Moore
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - J J Renema
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - W S Kolthammer
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - S W Nam
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - A Lita
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - T Gerrits
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - W Vogel
- Institut für Physik, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 23, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - G S Agarwal
- Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77845, USA
| | - I A Walmsley
- Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
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Ferrari S, Kovalyuk V, Hartmann W, Vetter A, Kahl O, Lee C, Korneev A, Rockstuhl C, Gol'tsman G, Pernice W. Hot-spot relaxation time current dependence in niobium nitride waveguide-integrated superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 25:8739-8750. [PMID: 28437951 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.008739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We investigate how the bias current affects the hot-spot relaxation dynamics in niobium nitride. We use for this purpose a near-infrared pump-probe technique on a waveguide-integrated superconducting nanowire single-photon detector driven in the two-photon regime. We observe a strong increase in the picosecond relaxation time for higher bias currents. A minimum relaxation time of (22 ± 1) ps is obtained when applying a bias current of 50% of the switching current at 1.7 K bath temperature. We also propose a practical approach to accurately estimate the photon detection regimes based on the reconstruction of the measured detector tomography at different bias currents and for different illumination conditions.
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8
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Renema JJ, Wang Q, Gaudio R, Komen I, op 't Hoog K, Sahin D, Schilling A, van Exter MP, Fiore A, Engel A, de Dood MJA. Position-Dependent Local Detection Efficiency in a Nanowire Superconducting Single-Photon Detector. NANO LETTERS 2015; 15:4541-4545. [PMID: 26087352 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b01103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We probe the local detection efficiency in a nanowire superconducting single-photon detector along the cross-section of the wire with a far subwavelength resolution. We experimentally find a strong variation in the local detection efficiency of the device. We demonstrate that this effect explains previously observed variations in NbN detector efficiency as a function of device geometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Renema
- †Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Q Wang
- †Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - R Gaudio
- ‡COBRA Research Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - I Komen
- †Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - K op 't Hoog
- ‡COBRA Research Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - D Sahin
- ‡COBRA Research Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - A Schilling
- §Physics Institute of the University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - M P van Exter
- †Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - A Fiore
- ‡COBRA Research Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - A Engel
- §Physics Institute of the University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - M J A de Dood
- †Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
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9
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Local mapping of detector response for reliable quantum state estimation. Nat Commun 2014; 5:4332. [PMID: 25019300 PMCID: PMC4104434 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Improved measurement techniques are central to technological development and foundational scientific exploration. Quantum physics relies on detectors sensitive to non-classical features of systems, enabling precise tests of physical laws and quantum-enhanced technologies including precision measurement and secure communications. Accurate detector response calibration for quantum-scale inputs is key to future research and development in these cognate areas. To address this requirement, quantum detector tomography has been recently introduced. However, this technique becomes increasingly challenging as the complexity of the detector response and input space grow in a number of measurement outcomes and required probe states, leading to further demands on experiments and data analysis. Here we present an experimental implementation of a versatile, alternative characterization technique to address many-outcome quantum detectors that limits the input calibration region and does not involve numerical post processing. To demonstrate the applicability of this approach, the calibrated detector is subsequently used to estimate non-classical photon number states. The successful realization of quantum information protocols relies on characterization of quantum states and measurements. Here, Cooper et al. experimentally demonstrate a technique enabling calibration of a detector with a sizeable number of outcomes using a limited amount of resources.
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10
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Renema JJ, Gaudio R, Wang Q, Zhou Z, Gaggero A, Mattioli F, Leoni R, Sahin D, de Dood MJA, Fiore A, van Exter MP. Experimental test of theories of the detection mechanism in a nanowire superconducting single photon detector. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2014; 112:117604. [PMID: 24702419 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.112.117604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
We report an experimental test of the photodetection mechanism in a nanowire superconducting single photon detector. Detector tomography allows us to explore the 0.8-8 eV energy range via multiphoton excitations. High accuracy results enable a detailed comparison of the experimental data with theories for the mechanism of photon detection. We show that the temperature dependence of the efficiency of the superconducting single photon detector is determined not by the critical current but by the current associated with vortex unbinding. We find that both quasiparticle diffusion and vortices play a role in the detection event.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Renema
- Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, Netherlands
| | - R Gaudio
- COBRA Research Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, Post Office Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Q Wang
- Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Z Zhou
- COBRA Research Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, Post Office Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - A Gaggero
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (IFN), CNR, via Cineto Romano 42, 00156 Roma, Italy
| | - F Mattioli
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (IFN), CNR, via Cineto Romano 42, 00156 Roma, Italy
| | - R Leoni
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (IFN), CNR, via Cineto Romano 42, 00156 Roma, Italy
| | - D Sahin
- COBRA Research Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, Post Office Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - M J A de Dood
- Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, Netherlands
| | - A Fiore
- COBRA Research Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, Post Office Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - M P van Exter
- Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, Netherlands
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11
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Zhou Z, Jahanmirinejad S, Mattioli F, Sahin D, Frucci G, Gaggero A, Leoni R, Fiore A. Superconducting series nanowire detector counting up to twelve photons. OPTICS EXPRESS 2014; 22:3475-3489. [PMID: 24663638 DOI: 10.1364/oe.22.003475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a superconducting photon-number-resolving detector capable of resolving up to twelve photons at telecommunication wavelengths. It is based on a series array of twelve superconducting NbN nanowire elements, each connected in parallel with an integrated resistor. The photon-induced voltage signals from the twelve elements are summed up into a single readout pulse with a height proportional to the detected photon number. Thirteen distinct output levels corresponding to the detection of n = 0-12 photons are observed experimentally. A detailed analysis of the linearity and of the excess noise shows the potential of scaling to an even larger dynamic range.
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12
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Zhou Z, Frucci G, Mattioli F, Gaggero A, Leoni R, Jahanmirinejad S, Hoang TB, Fiore A. Ultrasensitive N-photon interferometric autocorrelator. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2013; 110:133605. [PMID: 23581322 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.110.133605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a novel method to measure Nth-order (N=1,2,3,4) interferometric autocorrelation with high sensitivity and temporal resolution. It is based on the combination of linear absorption and nonlinear detection in a superconducting nanodetector, providing much higher efficiency than methods based on all-optical nonlinearities. Its temporal resolution is only limited by the quasiparticle energy relaxation time, which is directly measured to be in the 20 ps range for the NbN films used in this work. We present a general model of interferometric autocorrelation with these nonlinear detectors and discuss the comparison with other approaches and possible improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zili Zhou
- COBRA Research Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
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13
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Natarajan CM, Zhang L, Coldenstrodt-Ronge H, Donati G, Dorenbos SN, Zwiller V, Walmsley IA, Hadfield RH. Quantum detector tomography of a time-multiplexed superconducting nanowire single-photon detector at telecom wavelengths. OPTICS EXPRESS 2013; 21:893-902. [PMID: 23388983 DOI: 10.1364/oe.21.000893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) are widely used in telecom wavelength optical quantum information science applications. Quantum detector tomography allows the positive-operator-valued measure (POVM) of a single-photon detector to be determined. We use an all-fiber telecom wavelength detector tomography test bed to measure detector characteristics with respect to photon flux and polarization, and hence determine the POVM. We study the SNSPD both as a binary detector and in an 8-bin, fiber based, Time-Multiplexed (TM) configuration at repetition rates up to 4 MHz. The corresponding POVMs provide an accurate picture of the photon number resolving capability of the TM-SNSPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandra M Natarajan
- School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK.
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