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Zhang X, Liu L, Li Y, Ning T, Zhao Z. High-accuracy reconstruction of Stokes vectors via spatially modulated polarimetry using deep learning at low light field. APPLIED OPTICS 2023; 62:9009-9017. [PMID: 38108736 DOI: 10.1364/ao.501143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Polarization measurement is generally performed in scenes with a low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) such as remote sensing and biological tissue detection. The spatially modulated polarimeter can satisfy the real-time measurement requirements in low SNR scenes by establishing the mapping between photon spatial distribution and polarization information. However, accurately measuring the polarization state under low-light illumination becomes highly challenging owing to the interference of background noise. In this paper, a deep learning method is proposed and applied to the high-accuracy reconstruction of polarization information at low light field. A reinforced two-layer deep convolutional neural network is designed to respectively extract global and local features of noise in this method. Accurate photon spatial distribution can be obtained by fusing and processing these features. Experimental results illustrate the excellent accuracy achieved by the proposed method with a maximum average value of the absolute measured error below 0.04. More importantly, the proposed method is well-performed for the reconstruction of Stokes vectors at low light fields of various levels without requiring changes to the model, enhancing its practicality and simplicity.
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Xu W, Li H, Duan S, Xu H, Zheng C, Li J, Song C, Zhang Y, Shen Y, Yao J. On-demand multiplexed vortex beams for terahertz polarization detection based on metasurfaces. NANOSCALE 2023; 15:17184-17197. [PMID: 37855083 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr03905f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
The manipulation of polarization states is crucial for tailoring light-matter interactions and has great applications in fundamental science. Nevertheless, conventional polarization measurement approaches are extremely challenging to determine the polarization state of incident terahertz (THz) beams. The combination of metasurfaces and inhomogeneous vector vortex beams (VVBs) provides a new solution for integrated polarization-related functional devices. Herein, a general design strategy for spin-multiplexing all-silicon metasurfaces is presented and demonstrated in THz polarization detection. The employment of basic building blocks with a high aspect ratio (AR) imparts a greater degree of freedom for generating vector beams, and those basic blocks are subsequently utilized to explore the visualized polarization state. With the assistance of a THz near-field scanning system, we evaluate the capability of reconstructing the incident polarization state from the longitudinal polarization component multiplexed by vortex beams with tight focusing characteristics. Not only that, we also utilize the polarization with dynamically varying behavior as the illumination method to elucidate the evolution trend of the polarization state under a single snapshot and establish a visualized parametric model. This work paves the way to realize ultra-compact THz polarization detection-related devices for future applications in remote sensing, high-resolution imaging, and communications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Xu
- Key Laboratory of Opto-Electronics Information Technology (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, School of Precision Instruments and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Hui Li
- Key Laboratory of Opto-Electronics Information Technology (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, School of Precision Instruments and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Shouxin Duan
- Department of Physics, School of Physics and Materials Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China.
| | - Hang Xu
- Key Laboratory of Opto-Electronics Information Technology (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, School of Precision Instruments and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Chenglong Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Material Physics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics and Microelectronics, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China
| | - Jie Li
- Information Materials and Device Applications Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Universities, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu 610225, China
| | - Chunyu Song
- Key Laboratory of Opto-Electronics Information Technology (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, School of Precision Instruments and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Yating Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Opto-Electronics Information Technology (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, School of Precision Instruments and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Yun Shen
- Department of Physics, School of Physics and Materials Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China.
| | - Jianquan Yao
- Key Laboratory of Opto-Electronics Information Technology (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, School of Precision Instruments and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
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McGrory MR, King MD, Ward AD. Using Mie Scattering to Determine the Wavelength-Dependent Refractive Index of Polystyrene Beads with Changing Temperature. J Phys Chem A 2020; 124:9617-9625. [PMID: 33164512 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.0c06121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Polystyrene beads are often used as test particles in aerosol science. Here, a contact-less technique is reported for determining the refractive index of a solid aerosol particle as a function of wavelength and temperature (20-234 °C) simultaneously. Polystyrene beads with a diameter of 2 μm were optically trapped in air in the central orifice of a ceramic heating element, and Mie spectroscopy was used to determine the radius and refractive index (to precisions of 0.8 nm and 0.0014) of eight beads as a function of heating and cooling. Refractive index, n, as a function of wavelength, λ (0.480-0.650 μm), and temperature, T, in centigrade, was found to be n = 1.5753 - (1.7336 × 10-4)T + (9.733 × 10-3)λ-2 in the temperature range 20 < T < 100 °C and n = 1.5877 - (2.9739 × 10-4)T + (9.733 × 10-3)λ-2 in the temperature range 100 < T < 234 °C. The technique represents a step change in measuring the refractive index of materials across an extended range of temperature and wavelength in an absolute manner and with high precision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan R McGrory
- STFC, Central Laser Facility, Research Complex at Harwell, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Oxford, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0FA, U.K.,Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, U.K
| | - Martin D King
- Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, U.K
| | - Andrew D Ward
- STFC, Central Laser Facility, Research Complex at Harwell, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Oxford, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0FA, U.K
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Hu Q, Qiu Z, Hong J, Chen D. New light trap design for stray light reduction for a polarized scanning nephelometer. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2019; 90:035113. [PMID: 30927789 DOI: 10.1063/1.5055672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Light scattering is an important tool for gathering information about the structure and origin of atmospheric aerosols. We build a polarized scanning nephelometer to measure the properties of aerosol particles. However, the accuracy of the backward-scattered light measurements is limited by stray forward-scattered light reflected back into the collection optics. We briefly analyze this stray light. A new form of light trap with multiple hollow cones is introduced to suppress backward-scattered stray light. To evaluate the effect of the light trap on suppressing stray light for our nephelometer, a simulation model with and without the light trap was analyzed. Our results show that without the light trap, the percentage of backward-scattered stray light can be more than 50% for some kinds of particles. With the light trap with multiple hollow cones, the percentage of stray light with a backward-scattered angle can be less than 0.7%, which remains stable over different angles. Our results indicate that this structure could be particularly suitable for a light trap with a very large aperture but limited space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Hu
- Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenwei Qiu
- Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Jin Hong
- Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Dihu Chen
- Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China
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A Laboratory Experiment for the Statistical Evaluation of Aerosol Retrieval (STEAR) Algorithms. REMOTE SENSING 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/rs11050498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a method for evaluating the fidelity of the Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) retrieval algorithms by mimicking atmospheric extinction and radiance measurements in a laboratory experiment. This enables radiometric retrievals that use the same sampling volumes, relative humidities, and particle size ranges as observed by other in situ instrumentation in the experiment. We use three Cavity Attenuated Phase Shift (CAPS) monitors for extinction and University of Maryland Baltimore County’s (UMBC) three-wavelength Polarized Imaging Nephelometer (PI-Neph) for angular scattering measurements. We subsample the PI-Neph radiance measurements to angles that correspond to AERONET almucantar scans, with simulated solar zenith angles ranging from 50 ∘ to 77 ∘ . These measurements are then used as input to the Generalized Retrieval of Aerosol and Surface Properties (GRASP) algorithm, which retrieves size distributions, complex refractive indices, single-scatter albedos, and bistatic LiDAR ratios for the in situ samples. We obtained retrievals with residuals less than 8% for about 90 samples. Samples were alternately dried or humidified, and size distributions were limited to diameters of less than 1.0 or 2.5 μ m by using a cyclone. The single-scatter albedo at 532 nm for these samples ranged from 0.59 to 1.00 when computed with CAPS extinction and Particle Soot Absorption Photometer (PSAP) absorption measurements. The GRASP retrieval provided single-scatter albedos that are highly correlated with the in situ single-scatter albedos, and the correlation coefficients ranged from 0.916 to 0.976, depending upon the simulated solar zenith angle. The GRASP single-scatter albedos exhibited an average absolute bias of +0.023–0.026 with respect to the extinction and absorption measurements for the entire dataset. We also compared the GRASP size distributions to aerodynamic particle size measurements, using densities and aerodynamic shape factors that produce extinctions consistent with our CAPS measurements. The GRASP effective radii are highly correlated (R = 0.80) and biased under the corrected aerodynamic effective radii by 1.3% (for a simulated solar zenith angle of θ ∘ = 50 ∘ ); the effective variance indicated a correlation of R = 0.51 and a relative bias of 280%. Finally, our apparatus was not capable of measuring backscatter LiDAR ratios, so we measured bistatic LiDAR ratios at a scattering angle of 173 degrees. The GRASP bistatic LiDAR ratios had correlations of 0.71 to 0.86 (depending upon simulated θ ∘ ) with respect to in situ measurements, positive relative biases of 2–10%, and average absolute biases of 1.8–7.9 sr.
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Xu C, Ke C, Ma J, Huang Y, Zeng Z. Full-Stokes polarization imaging method based on the self-organized grating array in fused silica. Sci Rep 2018; 8:2331. [PMID: 29402906 PMCID: PMC5799200 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19942-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
A full-Stokes polarization imaging method based on the self-organized grating array was presented. By focusing the ultra-fast laser with moderate fluence into fused silica, the self-organized grating array was fabricated, featuring the optical properties similar to wave plates. A set of four independent polarization measurements were simultaneously acquired with designed grating array mounted in the focal plane of an imaging detector. Experimental results including the device fabrication, calibration and optimization were presented. Finally, a principle verification experiment was implemented for our polarization imaging method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Canhua Xu
- College of Physics and Information Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Chaozhen Ke
- College of Physics and Information Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Jing Ma
- College of Physics and Information Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Yantang Huang
- College of Physics and Information Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Zhiping Zeng
- College of Physics and Information Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China.
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Xu C, Ma J, Ke C, Huang Y, Zeng Z, Weng W. Numerical study of a DoFP polarimeter based on the self-organized nanograting array. OPTICS EXPRESS 2018; 26:2517-2527. [PMID: 29401790 DOI: 10.1364/oe.26.002517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The self-organized nanograting manufactured by irradiating the transparent materials with the femtosecond laser has aroused wide interests in photonic applications in recent years. Although the mechanism of nanograting formatting has not yet been fully understood, the essential property of the optical birefringence can be precisely acquired by controlling the energy fluence of the femtosecond laser. In this paper, we proposed a novel application of the self-organized nanograting in a division-of-focal-plane polarimeter. Based on the rigid-coupled-wave algorithm, the optical characteristics of the nanograting and the polarimeter were comprehensively analyzed and discussed.
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Zubko E, Weinberger AJ, Zubko N, Shkuratov Y, Videen G. Umov effect in single-scattering dust particles: effect of irregular shape. OPTICS LETTERS 2017; 42:1962-1965. [PMID: 28504770 DOI: 10.1364/ol.42.001962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The Umov effect manifests itself as an inverse correlation between the light-scattering maximum of positive polarization Pmax and the geometric albedo A of the target. In logarithmic scales, Pmax is linearly dependent on A. This effect has been long known in the optics of particulate surfaces and, recently, it was extended for the case of single-scattering dust particles whose size is comparable to the wavelength of the incident light. In this work, we investigate the effect of irregular shape on the Umov effect in single-scattering particles. Using the discrete dipole approximation (DDA), we model light scattering by two different types of irregularly shaped particles. Despite significant differences in their morphology, both types of particles reveal remarkably similar diagrams of log(Pmax) versus log(A). Moreover, in a power-law size distribution r-n with n=2.5-3.0, the Umov diagrams in both types of particles nearly coincide. This suggests little dependence on the shape of target particles in the retrieval of their reflectance using the Umov effect.
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Espinosa WR, Remer LA, Dubovik O, Ziemba L, Beyersdorf A, Orozco D, Schuster G, Lapyonok T, Fuertes D, Martins JV. Retrievals of aerosol optical and microphysical properties from Imaging Polar Nephelometer scattering measurements. ATMOSPHERIC MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 2017; 10:811-824. [PMID: 33510817 PMCID: PMC7839294 DOI: 10.5194/amt-10-811-2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A method for the retrieval of aerosol optical and microphysical properties from in situ light-scattering measurements is presented and the results are compared with existing measurement techniques. The Generalized Retrieval of Aerosol and Surface Properties (GRASP) is applied to airborne and laboratory measurements made by a novel polar nephelometer. This instrument, the Polarized Imaging Nephelometer (PI-Neph), is capable of making high-accuracy field measurements of phase function and degree of linear polarization, at three visible wavelengths, over a wide angular range of 3 to 177°. The resulting retrieval produces particle size distributions (PSDs) that agree, within experimental error, with measurements made by commercial optical particle counters (OPCs). Additionally, the retrieved real part of the refractive index is generally found to be within the predicted error of 0.02 from the expected values for three species of humidified salt particles, with a refractive index that is well established. The airborne measurements used in this work were made aboard the NASA DC-8 aircraft during the Studies of Emissions and Atmospheric Composition, Clouds and Climate Coupling by Regional Surveys (SEAC4RS) field campaign, and the inversion of this data represents the first aerosol retrievals of airborne polar nephelometer data. The results provide confidence in the real refractive index product, as well as in the retrieval's ability to accurately determine PSD, without assumptions about refractive index that are required by the majority of OPCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- W. Reed Espinosa
- Department of Physics, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, MD 21250, USA
- Joint Center for Earth Systems Technology, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 5523 Research Park DR, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
| | - Lorraine A. Remer
- Department of Physics, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, MD 21250, USA
- Joint Center for Earth Systems Technology, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 5523 Research Park DR, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
| | - Oleg Dubovik
- Laboratoire d’Optique Atmosphérique, UMR8518, CNRS, Université de Lille 1, 59655, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France
| | - Luke Ziemba
- Langley Research Center Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Hampton, Virginia, USA
| | - Andreas Beyersdorf
- Langley Research Center Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Hampton, Virginia, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University San Bernardino, 5500 University Parkway, San Bernardino, CA 92407, USA
| | - Daniel Orozco
- Department of Physics, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, MD 21250, USA
- Joint Center for Earth Systems Technology, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 5523 Research Park DR, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
| | - Gregory Schuster
- Langley Research Center Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Hampton, Virginia, USA
| | - Tatyana Lapyonok
- Laboratoire d’Optique Atmosphérique, UMR8518, CNRS, Université de Lille 1, 59655, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France
| | - David Fuertes
- GRASP-SAS, Bat-P5, Université de Lille 1, 59655, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France
| | - J. Vanderlei Martins
- Department of Physics, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, MD 21250, USA
- Joint Center for Earth Systems Technology, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 5523 Research Park DR, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
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Zimmerman BG, Brown TG. Star test image-sampling polarimeter. OPTICS EXPRESS 2016; 24:23154-23161. [PMID: 27828381 DOI: 10.1364/oe.24.023154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We present an analysis and test of an image sampling polarimeter based on the concept of Star Test Polarimetry first introduced by Ramkhalawon. The method makes use of a stress engineered optical element (SEO) placed in the pupil plane of an optical system to induce a polarization dependent point spread function (PSF) at the detector. We describe the calibration requirements of the polarimeter and introduce a new algorithm that can robustly extract the Stokes parameters in a single irradiance measurement. By acquiring statistics on the sampled Stokes parameters of a uniformly illuminated pinhole array, we show that a single frame can provide a root mean square angular error of approximately 10 milliradians on the Poincaré sphere.
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Mishchenko MI, Dlugach JM, Yurkin MA, Bi L, Cairns B, Liu L, Panetta RL, Travis LD, Yang P, Zakharova NT. First-principles modeling of electromagnetic scattering by discrete and discretely heterogeneous random media. PHYSICS REPORTS 2016; 632:1-75. [PMID: 29657355 PMCID: PMC5896873 DOI: 10.1016/j.physrep.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A discrete random medium is an object in the form of a finite volume of a vacuum or a homogeneous material medium filled with quasi-randomly and quasi-uniformly distributed discrete macroscopic impurities called small particles. Such objects are ubiquitous in natural and artificial environments. They are often characterized by analyzing theoretically the results of laboratory, in situ, or remote-sensing measurements of the scattering of light and other electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic scattering and absorption by particles can also affect the energy budget of a discrete random medium and hence various ambient physical and chemical processes. In either case electromagnetic scattering must be modeled in terms of appropriate optical observables, i.e., quadratic or bilinear forms in the field that quantify the reading of a relevant optical instrument or the electromagnetic energy budget. It is generally believed that time-harmonic Maxwell's equations can accurately describe elastic electromagnetic scattering by macroscopic particulate media that change in time much more slowly than the incident electromagnetic field. However, direct solutions of these equations for discrete random media had been impracticable until quite recently. This has led to a widespread use of various phenomenological approaches in situations when their very applicability can be questioned. Recently, however, a new branch of physical optics has emerged wherein electromagnetic scattering by discrete and discretely heterogeneous random media is modeled directly by using analytical or numerically exact computer solutions of the Maxwell equations. Therefore, the main objective of this Report is to formulate the general theoretical framework of electromagnetic scattering by discrete random media rooted in the Maxwell-Lorentz electromagnetics and discuss its immediate analytical and numerical consequences. Starting from the microscopic Maxwell-Lorentz equations, we trace the development of the first-principles formalism enabling accurate calculations of monochromatic and quasi-monochromatic scattering by static and randomly varying multiparticle groups. We illustrate how this general framework can be coupled with state-of-the-art computer solvers of the Maxwell equations and applied to direct modeling of electromagnetic scattering by representative random multi-particle groups with arbitrary packing densities. This first-principles modeling yields general physical insights unavailable with phenomenological approaches. We discuss how the first-order-scattering approximation, the radiative transfer theory, and the theory of weak localization of electromagnetic waves can be derived as immediate corollaries of the Maxwell equations for very specific and well-defined kinds of particulate medium. These recent developments confirm the mesoscopic origin of the radiative transfer, weak localization, and effective-medium regimes and help evaluate the numerical accuracy of widely used approximate modeling methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Janna M. Dlugach
- Main Astronomical Observatory of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 27 Zabolotny Str., 03680, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Maxim A. Yurkin
- Voevodsky Institute of Chemical Kinetics and Combustion, SB RAS, Institutskaya str. 3, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
- Novosibirsk State University, Pirogova 2, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Lei Bi
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Brian Cairns
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2880 Broadway, New York, NY 10025, USA
| | - Li Liu
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2880 Broadway, New York, NY 10025, USA
- Columbia University, 2880 Broadway, New York, NY 10025, USA
| | - R. Lee Panetta
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Larry D. Travis
- NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2880 Broadway, New York, NY 10025, USA
| | - Ping Yang
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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