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Dreier LB, Kölbl C, Jeuk V, Beleites C, Köhntopp A, Duschek F. Setup and Analysis of a Mid-Infrared Stand-Off System to Detect Traces of Explosives on Fabrics. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:7839. [PMID: 36298189 PMCID: PMC9607324 DOI: 10.3390/s22207839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The increasing number of terrorist attacks within the last decade has demonstrated that taking preventive protective measures is highly important. In addition to existing measures, automated detection systems for fast and reliable explosive detection are required. A sensitive spectroscopic system based on mid-infrared spectroscopy has been developed and applied to explosive samples on different types of fabric under various geometric conditions. Using this system, traces of TNT, RDX, PETN and ammonium nitrate can be detected in less than a second. Various approaches for data pretreatment (wavelength calibration) and subsequent analysis (normalization, removal of atmospheric water absorption lines) are presented and the remaining challenges on the road to a fully automated system, including a robust classification algorithm, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa B. Dreier
- German Aerospace Center, Institute of Technical Physics, Im Langen Grund 1, 74239 Hardthausen, Germany
| | - Christoph Kölbl
- German Aerospace Center, Institute of Technical Physics, Im Langen Grund 1, 74239 Hardthausen, Germany
| | - Vincent Jeuk
- German Aerospace Center, Institute of Technical Physics, Im Langen Grund 1, 74239 Hardthausen, Germany
| | | | - Anja Köhntopp
- German Aerospace Center, Institute of Technical Physics, Im Langen Grund 1, 74239 Hardthausen, Germany
| | - Frank Duschek
- German Aerospace Center, Institute of Technical Physics, Im Langen Grund 1, 74239 Hardthausen, Germany
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2
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Narlagiri LM, Bharati M, Beeram R, Banerjee D, Soma VR. Recent trends in laser-based standoff detection of hazardous molecules. Trends Analyt Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2022.116645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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3
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Artificial Intelligence Assisted Mid-Infrared Laser Spectroscopy In Situ Detection of Petroleum in Soils. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app10041319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A simple, remote-sensed method of detection of traces of petroleum in soil combining artificial intelligence (AI) with mid-infrared (MIR) laser spectroscopy is presented. A portable MIR quantum cascade laser (QCL) was used as an excitation source, making the technique amenable to field applications. The MIR spectral region is more informative and useful than the near IR region for the detection of pollutants in soil. Remote sensing, coupled with a support vector machine (SVM) algorithm, was used to accurately identify the presence/absence of traces of petroleum in soil mixtures. Chemometrics tools such as principal component analysis (PCA), partial least square-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), and SVM demonstrated the effectiveness of rapidly differentiating between different soil types and detecting the presence of petroleum traces in different soil matrices such as sea sand, red soil, and brown soil. Comparisons between results of PLS-DA and SVM were based on sensitivity, selectivity, and areas under receiver-operator curves (ROC). An innovative statistical analysis method of calculating limits of detection (LOD) and limits of decision (LD) from fits of the probability of detection was developed. Results for QCL/PLS-DA models achieved LOD and LD of 0.2% and 0.01% for petroleum/soil, respectively. The superior performance of QCL/SVM models improved these values to 0.04% and 0.003%, respectively, providing better identification probability of soils contaminated with petroleum.
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Pacheco-Londoño LC, Ruiz-Caballero JL, Ramírez-Cedeño ML, Infante-Castillo R, Gálan-Freyle NJ, Hernández-Rivera SP. Surface Persistence of Trace Level Deposits of Highly Energetic Materials. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24193494. [PMID: 31561514 PMCID: PMC6804148 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24193494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
In the fields of Security and Defense, explosive traces must be analyzed at the sites of the terrorist events. The persistence on surfaces of these traces depends on the sublimation processes and the interactions with the surfaces. This study presents evidence that the sublimation process of these traces on stainless steel (SS) surfaces is very different than in bulk quantities. The enthalpies of sublimation of traces of four highly energetic materials: triacetone triperoxide (TATP), 2,4-dinitrotoluene (DNT), 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), and 1,3,5- trinitrohexahydro-s-triazine (RDX) deposited on SS substrates were determined by optical fiber coupled-grazing angle probe Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy. These were compared with enthalpies of sublimation determined by thermal gravimetric analysis for bulk amounts and differences between them were found. The sublimation enthalpy of RDX was very different for traces than for bulk quantities, attributed to two main factors. First, the beta-RDX phase was present at trace levels, unlike the case of bulk amounts which consisted only of the alpha-RDX phase. Second, an interaction between the RDX and SS was found. This interaction energy was determined using grazing angle FTIR microscopy. In the case of DNT and TNT, bulk and traces enthalpies were statistically similar, but it is evidenced that at the level of traces a metastable phase was observed. Finally, for TATP the enthalpies were statistically identical, but a non-linear behavior and a change of heat capacity values different from zero was found for both trace and bulk phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo C Pacheco-Londoño
- R3-C Research and Education Component of ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, PR 00681, USA.
- School of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Simón Bolívar, Barranquilla, 080020 Atlantico, Colombia.
| | - José L Ruiz-Caballero
- R3-C Research and Education Component of ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, PR 00681, USA.
- Joseph Smith & Sons Inc., Capitol Heights, MD 20743, USA.
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA.
| | - Michael L Ramírez-Cedeño
- R3-C Research and Education Component of ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, PR 00681, USA.
| | | | - Nataly J Gálan-Freyle
- R3-C Research and Education Component of ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, PR 00681, USA.
- School of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Simón Bolívar, Barranquilla, 080020 Atlantico, Colombia.
| | - Samuel P Hernández-Rivera
- R3-C Research and Education Component of ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, PR 00681, USA.
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Giordano BC, Ratchford DC, Johnson KJ, Pehrsson PE. Silicon nanowire arrays for the preconcentration and separation of trace explosives vapors. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1597:54-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.03.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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6
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Zhang W, Tang Y, Shi A, Bao L, Shen Y, Shen R, Ye Y. Recent Developments in Spectroscopic Techniques for the Detection of Explosives. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2018; 11:E1364. [PMID: 30082670 PMCID: PMC6120018 DOI: 10.3390/ma11081364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Trace detection of explosives has been an ongoing challenge for decades and has become one of several critical problems in defense science; public safety; and global counter-terrorism. As a result, there is a growing interest in employing a wide variety of approaches to detect trace explosive residues. Spectroscopy-based techniques play an irreplaceable role for the detection of energetic substances due to the advantages of rapid, automatic, and non-contact. The present work provides a comprehensive review of the advances made over the past few years in the fields of the applications of terahertz (THz) spectroscopy; laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), Raman spectroscopy; and ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) for trace explosives detection. Furthermore, the advantages and limitations of various spectroscopy-based detection techniques are summarized. Finally, the future development for the detection of explosives is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China.
| | - Yue Tang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China.
| | - Anran Shi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China.
| | - Lirong Bao
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China.
| | - Yun Shen
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China.
| | - Ruiqi Shen
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China.
| | - Yinghua Ye
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China.
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McEneff GL, Richardson A, Webb T, Wood D, Murphy B, Irlam R, Mills J, Green D, Barron LP. Sorbent Film-Coated Passive Samplers for Explosives Vapour Detection Part B: Deployment in Semi-Operational Environments and Alternative Applications. Sci Rep 2018; 8:5816. [PMID: 29643411 PMCID: PMC5895787 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-24245-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The application of new sorbent-film coated passive samplers for capture of bulk commercial and military explosives vapours in operationally relevant spaces such as luggage, rooms, vehicles and shipping containers is presented. Samplers were easily integrated with in-service detection technologies with little/no sample preparation required. Ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN) was detected within 4 h in a container holding a suitcase packed with 0.2 kg Perunit 28E. Within a 22,000 dm3 room, 1 kg of concealed Seguridad was detected within 24 h and in an adjoining room within 7 days. Exposed samplers also successfully captured components of 1 kg TNT after 72 h and 1 kg concealed Perunit 28E after 6 h in both a furnished room and a large, partially filled shipping container. For the latter, samplers captured detectable residues outside the container after 24 h and were stable during wet weather for 72 h. A one-week trial at three operationally relevant venues including a university, a theatre and a government building revealed a nuisance positive rate of <1.4% (n = 72). Finally, two alternative applications are presented for extraction of liquid samples and use a particulate contact swab showing flexibility for a range of different search activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gillian L McEneff
- King's Forensics, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, SE1 9NH, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Alexandra Richardson
- King's Forensics, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, SE1 9NH, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tony Webb
- Threat Mitigation Technologies, Metropolitan Police Service, 113 Grove Park, London, SE5 8LE, United Kingdom
| | - Dan Wood
- Threat Mitigation Technologies, Metropolitan Police Service, 113 Grove Park, London, SE5 8LE, United Kingdom
| | - Bronagh Murphy
- King's Forensics, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, SE1 9NH, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel Irlam
- King's Forensics, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, SE1 9NH, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jim Mills
- Air Monitors Ltd., 2/3 Miller Court, Severn Drive, Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire, GL20 8DN, United Kingdom
| | - David Green
- King's Forensics, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, SE1 9NH, London, United Kingdom
| | - Leon P Barron
- King's Forensics, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, SE1 9NH, London, United Kingdom.
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8
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Ruiz-Caballero JL, Aparicio-Bolaño JA, Figueroa-Navedo AM, Pacheco-Londoño LC, Hernandez-Rivera SP. Optical Properties of β-RDX Thin Films Deposited on Gold and Stainless Steel Substrates Calculated from Reflection-Absorption Infrared Spectra. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2017; 71:1990-2000. [PMID: 28537428 DOI: 10.1177/0003702817710248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The optical properties for crystalline films of the highly energetic material (HEM) hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-s-triazine, which is also known as RDX, deposited on gold (Au) and stainless steel (SS) substrates are presented. RDX has two important stable conformational polymorphs at room temperature: α-RDX and β-RDX. The optical properties obtained in the present work correspond to thin film samples of predominantly β-RDX polymorph. The infrared spectroscopic intensities measured showed significant differences in the β-RDX crystalline films deposited on the two substrates with respect to the calculated real part of refractive index. The β-RDX/Au crystalline films have a high dynamic response, which is characterized by the asymmetric stretching mode of the axial nitro groups, whereas for the β-RDX/SS crystalline films, the dynamic response was mediated by the -N-NO2 symmetric stretch mode. This result provides an idea of how the electric field vector propagates through the β-RDX crystalline films deposited on the two substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- José L Ruiz-Caballero
- 1 ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, PR, USA
| | | | - Amanda M Figueroa-Navedo
- 1 ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, PR, USA
| | - Leonardo C Pacheco-Londoño
- 1 ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, PR, USA
- 3 School of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Simón Bolívar, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Samuel P Hernandez-Rivera
- 1 ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, PR, USA
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9
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Galán-Freyle NJ, Pacheco-Londoño LC, Román-Ospino AD, Hernandez-Rivera SP. Applications of Quantum Cascade Laser Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Pharmaceutical Formulations. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2016; 70:1511-1519. [PMID: 27558366 DOI: 10.1177/0003702816662609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Quantum cascade laser spectroscopy was used to quantify active pharmaceutical ingredient content in a model formulation. The analyses were conducted in non-contact mode by mid-infrared diffuse reflectance. Measurements were carried out at a distance of 15 cm, covering the spectral range 1000-1600 cm(-1) Calibrations were generated by applying multivariate analysis using partial least squares models. Among the figures of merit of the proposed methodology are the high analytical sensitivity equivalent to 0.05% active pharmaceutical ingredient in the formulation, high repeatability (2.7%), high reproducibility (5.4%), and low limit of detection (1%). The relatively high power of the quantum-cascade-laser-based spectroscopic system resulted in the design of detection and quantification methodologies for pharmaceutical applications with high accuracy and precision that are comparable to those of methodologies based on near-infrared spectroscopy, attenuated total reflection mid-infrared Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataly J Galán-Freyle
- ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, USA School of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, Universidad Simón Bolívar, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Leonardo C Pacheco-Londoño
- ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, USA Environmental Engineering Program, Vice-Rectory for Research, ECCI University, Bogotá, D.C., Colombia
| | | | - Samuel P Hernandez-Rivera
- ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, USA
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10
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Castro-Suarez JR, Hidalgo-Santiago M, Hernández-Rivera SP. Detection of highly energetic materials on non-reflective substrates using quantum cascade laser spectroscopy. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2015; 69:1023-1035. [PMID: 26414522 DOI: 10.1366/14-07626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A quantum cascade laser spectrometer was used to obtain the reflection spectra of highly energetic materials (HEMs) deposited on nonideal, low-reflectivity substrates, such as travel-bag fabric (polyester), cardboard, and wood. Various deposition methods were used to prepare the standards and samples in the study. The HEMs used were the nitroaromatic explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), the aliphatic nitrate ester pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), and the aliphatic nitramine 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). Chemometrics algorithms were applied to analyze the recorded spectra. Partial least squares (PLS) regression analysis was used to find the best correlation between the infrared signals and the surface concentrations of the samples, and PLS combined with discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was used to discriminate, classify, and identity similarities in the spectral datasets. Several preprocessing steps were applied to prepare the mid-infrared spectra of HEMs deposited on the target substrates. The results demonstrate that the infrared vibrational method described in this study is well suited for the rapid screening analysis of HEMs on low-reflectivity substrates when a supervised model has been previously constructed or when a reference spectrum of the clean substrate can be acquired to be subtracted from the HEM-substrate spectrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Castro-Suarez
- University of Puerto Rico-Mayagüez, ALERT DHS Center of Excellence for Explosives Research, Department of Chemistry, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico 00681
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