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Liao JM, Hong ST, Wang YT, Cheng YA, Ho KW, Toh SI, Shih O, Jeng US, Lyu PC, Hu IC, Huang MY, Chang CY, Cheng TL. Integrating molecular dynamics simulation with small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering to unravel the flexibility, antigen-blocking, and protease-restoring functions in a hindrance-based pro-antibody. Protein Sci 2024; 33:e5124. [PMID: 39145427 PMCID: PMC11325194 DOI: 10.1002/pro.5124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024]
Abstract
Spatial hindrance-based pro-antibodies (pro-Abs) are engineered antibodies to reduce monoclonal antibodies' (mAbs) on-target toxicity using universal designed blocking segments that mask mAb antigen-binding sites through spatial hindrance. By linking through protease substrates and linkers, these blocking segments can be removed site-specifically. Although many types of blocking segments have been developed, such as coiled-coil and hinge-based Ab locks, the molecular structure of the pro-Ab, particularly the region showing how the blocking fragment blocks the mAb, has not been elucidated by X-ray crystallography or cryo-EM. To achieve maximal effect, a pro-Ab must have high antigen-blocking and protease-restoring efficiencies, but the unclear structure limits its further optimization. Here, we utilized molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to study the dynamic structures of a hinge-based Ab lock pro-Ab, pro-Nivolumab, and validated the simulated structures with small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SWAXS). The MD results were closely consistent with SWAXS data (χ2 best-fit = 1.845, χ2 allMD = 3.080). The further analysis shows a pronounced flexibility of the Ab lock (root-mean-square deviation = 10.90 Å), yet it still masks the important antigen-binding residues by 57.3%-88.4%, explaining its 250-folded antigen-blocking efficiency. The introduced protease accessible surface area method affirmed better protease efficiency for light chain (33.03 Å2) over heavy chain (5.06 Å2), which aligns with the experiments. Overall, we developed MD-SWAXS validation method to study the dynamics of flexible blocking segments and introduced methodologies to estimate their antigen-blocking and protease-restoring efficiencies, which would potentially be advancing the clinical applications of any spatial hindrance-based pro-Ab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Min Liao
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Ting Hong
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yeng-Tseng Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yi-An Cheng
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Precisemab Biotech Co. Ltd, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Wen Ho
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Ing Toh
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Orion Shih
- National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - U-Ser Jeng
- National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Department of Chemical Engineering &College of Semiconductor Research, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Ping-Chiang Lyu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - I-Chen Hu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Yii Huang
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Yuan Chang
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Center for Intelligent Drug Systems and Smart Bio-devices, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Tian-Lu Cheng
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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Xiong JX, Li YT, Tan XY, Chen T, Liu BH, Fu L. Targeting PRSS23 with tipranavir induces gastric cancer stem cell apoptosis and inhibits growth of gastric cancer via the MKK3/p38 MAPK-IL24 pathway. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2024; 45:405-421. [PMID: 37814123 PMCID: PMC10789761 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-023-01165-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Gastric cancer stem cells (GCSCs) contribute to the refractory features of gastric cancer (GC) and are responsible for metastasis, relapse, and drug resistance. The key factors drive GCSC function and affect the clinical outcome of GC patients remain poorly understood. PRSS23 is a novel serine protease that is significantly up-regulated in several types of cancers and cancer stem cells, and related to tumor progression and drug resistance. In this study, we investigated the role of PRSS23 in GCSCs as well as the mechanism by which PRSS23 regulated the GCSC functions. We demonstrated that PRSS23 was critical for sustaining GCSC survival. By screening a collection of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease inhibitors (PIs), we identified tipranavir as a PRSS23-targeting drug, which effectively killed both GCSC and GC cell lines (its IC50 values were 4.7 and 6.4 μM in GCSC1 cells and GCSC2 cells, respectively). Administration of tipranavir (25 mg·kg-1·d-1, i.p., for 8 days) in GCSC-derived xenograft mice markedly inhibited the growth of subcutaneous GCSC tumors without apparent toxicity. In contrast, combined treatment with 5-FU plus cisplatin did not affect the tumor growth but causing significant weight loss. Furthermore, we revealed that tipranavir induced GCSC cell apoptosis by suppressing PRSS23 expression, releasing MKK3 from the PRSS23/MKK3 complex to activate p38 MAPK, and thereby activating the IL24-mediated Bax/Bak mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. In addition, tipranavir was found to kill other types of cancer cell lines and drug-resistant cell lines. Collectively, this study demonstrates that by targeting both GCSCs and GC cells, tipranavir is a promising anti-cancer drug, and the clinical development of tipranavir or other drugs specifically targeting the PRSS23/MKK3/p38MAPK-IL24 mitochondrial apoptotic pathway may offer an effective approach to combat gastric and other cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Xian Xiong
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
| | - Yu-Ting Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Xiang-Yu Tan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Tie Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Bao-Hua Liu
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Li Fu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
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Hölzen L, Syré K, Mitschke J, Brummer T, Miething C, Reinheckel T. Degradome-focused RNA interference screens to identify proteases important for breast cancer cell growth. Front Oncol 2022; 12:960109. [PMID: 36313646 PMCID: PMC9598039 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.960109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteases are known to promote or impair breast cancer progression and metastasis. However, while a small number of the 588 human and 672 murine protease genes have been extensively studied, others were neglected. For an unbiased functional analysis of all genome-encoded proteases, i.e., the degradome, in breast cancer cell growth, we applied an inducible RNA interference library for protease-focused genetic screens. Importantly, these functional screens were performed in two phenotypically different murine breast cancer cell lines, including one stem cell-like cell line that showed phenotypic plasticity under changed nutrient and oxygen availability. Our unbiased genetic screens identified 252 protease genes involved in breast cancer cell growth that were further restricted to 100 hits by a selection process. Many of those hits were supported by literature, but some proteases were novel in their functional link to breast cancer. Interestingly, we discovered that the environmental conditions influence the degree of breast cancer cell dependency on certain proteases. For example, breast cancer stem cell-like cells were less susceptible to depletion of several mitochondrial proteases in hypoxic conditions. From the 100 hits, nine proteases were functionally validated in murine breast cancer cell lines using individual knockdown constructs, highlighting the high reliability of our screens. Specifically, we focused on mitochondrial processing peptidase (MPP) subunits alpha (Pmpca) and beta (Pmpcb) and discovered that MPP depletion led to a disadvantage in cell growth, which was linked to mitochondrial dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Hölzen
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) Partner Site Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Kerstin Syré
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jan Mitschke
- Center for Translational Cell Research, Department of Internal Medicine I - Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Tilman Brummer
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) Partner Site Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
- Center for Biological Signaling Studies BIOSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Freiburg (CCCF), University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Cornelius Miething
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) Partner Site Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
- Center for Translational Cell Research, Department of Internal Medicine I - Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Freiburg (CCCF), University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) Partner Site Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
- Center for Biological Signaling Studies BIOSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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Majc B, Habič A, Novak M, Rotter A, Porčnik A, Mlakar J, Župunski V, Fonović UP, Knez D, Zidar N, Gobec S, Kos J, Turnšek TL, Pišlar A, Breznik B. Upregulation of Cathepsin X in Glioblastoma: Interplay with γ-Enolase and the Effects of Selective Cathepsin X Inhibitors. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031784. [PMID: 35163706 PMCID: PMC8836869 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and deadly primary brain tumor in adults. Understanding GBM pathobiology and discovering novel therapeutic targets are critical to finding efficient treatments. Upregulation of the lysosomal cysteine carboxypeptidase cathepsin X has been linked to immune dysfunction and neurodegenerative diseases, but its role in cancer and particularly in GBM progression in patients is unknown. In this study, cathepsin X expression and activity were found to be upregulated in human GBM tissues compared to low-grade gliomas and nontumor brain tissues. Cathepsin X was localized in GBM cells as well as in tumor-associated macrophages and microglia. Subsequently, potent irreversible (AMS36) and reversible (Z7) selective cathepsin X inhibitors were tested in vitro. Selective cathepsin X inhibitors decreased the viability of patient-derived GBM cells as well as macrophages and microglia that were cultured in conditioned media of GBM cells. We next examined the expression pattern of neuron-specific enzyme γ-enolase, which is the target of cathepsin X. We found that there was a correlation between high proteolytic activity of cathepsin X and C-terminal cleavage of γ-enolase and that cathepsin X and γ-enolase were colocalized in GBM tissues, preferentially in GBM-associated macrophages and microglia. Taken together, our results on patient-derived material suggest that cathepsin X is involved in GBM progression and is a potential target for therapeutic approaches against GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernarda Majc
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, 111 Večna pot, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (B.M.); (A.H.); (M.N.); (A.R.); (T.L.T.)
- Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, 39 Jamova cesta, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Anamarija Habič
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, 111 Večna pot, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (B.M.); (A.H.); (M.N.); (A.R.); (T.L.T.)
- Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, 39 Jamova cesta, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Metka Novak
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, 111 Večna pot, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (B.M.); (A.H.); (M.N.); (A.R.); (T.L.T.)
| | - Ana Rotter
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, 111 Večna pot, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (B.M.); (A.H.); (M.N.); (A.R.); (T.L.T.)
| | - Andrej Porčnik
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, 7 Zaloška cesta, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Jernej Mlakar
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, 2 Korytkova ulica, 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia;
| | - Vera Župunski
- Chair of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, 113 Večna pot, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Urša Pečar Fonović
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 7 Aškerčeva cesta, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (U.P.F.); (D.K.); (N.Z.); (S.G.); (J.K.)
| | - Damijan Knez
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 7 Aškerčeva cesta, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (U.P.F.); (D.K.); (N.Z.); (S.G.); (J.K.)
| | - Nace Zidar
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 7 Aškerčeva cesta, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (U.P.F.); (D.K.); (N.Z.); (S.G.); (J.K.)
| | - Stanislav Gobec
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 7 Aškerčeva cesta, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (U.P.F.); (D.K.); (N.Z.); (S.G.); (J.K.)
| | - Janko Kos
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 7 Aškerčeva cesta, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (U.P.F.); (D.K.); (N.Z.); (S.G.); (J.K.)
| | - Tamara Lah Turnšek
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, 111 Večna pot, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (B.M.); (A.H.); (M.N.); (A.R.); (T.L.T.)
- Chair of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, 113 Večna pot, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Anja Pišlar
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 7 Aškerčeva cesta, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (U.P.F.); (D.K.); (N.Z.); (S.G.); (J.K.)
- Correspondence: (B.B.); Tel.: +386-(0)59-232-870; (A.P.), Tel.: +386-(0)14-169-526
| | - Barbara Breznik
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, 111 Večna pot, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (B.M.); (A.H.); (M.N.); (A.R.); (T.L.T.)
- Correspondence: (B.B.); Tel.: +386-(0)59-232-870; (A.P.), Tel.: +386-(0)14-169-526
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Verhulst E, Garnier D, De Meester I, Bauvois B. Validating Cell Surface Proteases as Drug Targets for Cancer Therapy: What Do We Know, and Where Do We Go? Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:624. [PMID: 35158891 PMCID: PMC8833564 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14030624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell surface proteases (also known as ectoproteases) are transmembrane and membrane-bound enzymes involved in various physiological and pathological processes. Several members, most notably dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4/CD26) and its related family member fibroblast activation protein (FAP), aminopeptidase N (APN/CD13), a disintegrin and metalloprotease 17 (ADAM17/TACE), and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) MMP2 and MMP9, are often overexpressed in cancers and have been associated with tumour dysfunction. With multifaceted actions, these ectoproteases have been validated as therapeutic targets for cancer. Numerous inhibitors have been developed to target these enzymes, attempting to control their enzymatic activity. Even though clinical trials with these compounds did not show the expected results in most cases, the field of ectoprotease inhibitors is growing. This review summarizes the current knowledge on this subject and highlights the recent development of more effective and selective drugs targeting ectoproteases among which small molecular weight inhibitors, peptide conjugates, prodrugs, or monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and derivatives. These promising avenues have the potential to deliver novel therapeutic strategies in the treatment of cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emile Verhulst
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium; (E.V.); (I.D.M.)
| | - Delphine Garnier
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Cell Death and Drug Resistance in Lymphoproliferative Disorders Team, F-75006 Paris, France;
| | - Ingrid De Meester
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium; (E.V.); (I.D.M.)
| | - Brigitte Bauvois
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Cell Death and Drug Resistance in Lymphoproliferative Disorders Team, F-75006 Paris, France;
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van Noorden CJ, Breznik B, Novak M, van Dijck AJ, Tanan S, Vittori M, Bogataj U, Bakker N, Khoury JD, Molenaar RJ, Hira VV. Cell Biology Meets Cell Metabolism: Energy Production Is Similar in Stem Cells and in Cancer Stem Cells in Brain and Bone Marrow. J Histochem Cytochem 2022; 70:29-51. [PMID: 34714696 PMCID: PMC8721571 DOI: 10.1369/00221554211054585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Energy production by means of ATP synthesis in cancer cells has been investigated frequently as a potential therapeutic target in this century. Both (an)aerobic glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) have been studied. Here, we review recent literature on energy production in glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) and leukemic stem cells (LSCs) versus their normal counterparts, neural stem cells (NSCs) and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), respectively. These two cancer stem cell types were compared because their niches in glioblastoma tumors and in bone marrow are similar. In this study, it became apparent that (1) ATP is produced in NSCs and HSCs by anaerobic glycolysis, whereas fatty acid oxidation (FAO) is essential for their stem cell fate and (2) ATP is produced in GSCs and LSCs by OXPHOS despite the hypoxic conditions in their niches with FAO and amino acids providing its substrate. These metabolic processes appeared to be under tight control of cellular regulation mechanisms which are discussed in depth. However, our conclusion is that systemic therapeutic targeting of ATP production via glycolysis or OXPHOS is not an attractive option because of its unwanted side effects in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Barbara Breznik
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Metka Novak
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | | | - Miloš Vittori
- Amsterdam UMC Location Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Urban Bogataj
- Amsterdam UMC Location Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Joseph D. Khoury
- Department of Hematopathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Remco J. Molenaar
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia,Department of Medical Oncology
| | - Vashendriya V.V. Hira
- Vashendriya V.V. Hira, Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna Pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail:
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