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Valeriani D, Santoro F, Ienca M. The present and future of neural interfaces. Front Neurorobot 2022; 16:953968. [PMID: 36304780 PMCID: PMC9592849 DOI: 10.3389/fnbot.2022.953968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The 2020's decade will likely witness an unprecedented development and deployment of neurotechnologies for human rehabilitation, personalized use, and cognitive or other enhancement. New materials and algorithms are already enabling active brain monitoring and are allowing the development of biohybrid and neuromorphic systems that can adapt to the brain. Novel brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) have been proposed to tackle a variety of enhancement and therapeutic challenges, from improving decision-making to modulating mood disorders. While these BCIs have generally been developed in an open-loop modality to optimize their internal neural decoders, this decade will increasingly witness their validation in closed-loop systems that are able to continuously adapt to the user's mental states. Therefore, a proactive ethical approach is needed to ensure that these new technological developments go hand in hand with the development of a sound ethical framework. In this perspective article, we summarize recent developments in neural interfaces, ranging from neurohybrid synapses to closed-loop BCIs, and thereby identify the most promising macro-trends in BCI research, such as simulating vs. interfacing the brain, brain recording vs. brain stimulation, and hardware vs. software technology. Particular attention is devoted to central nervous system interfaces, especially those with application in healthcare and human enhancement. Finally, we critically assess the possible futures of neural interfacing and analyze the short- and long-term implications of such neurotechnologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Francesca Santoro
- Institute for Biological Information Processing - Bioelectronics, IBI-3, Forschungszentrum Juelich, Juelich, Germany
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Marcello Ienca
- College of Humanities, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Marcello Ienca
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Abstract
The three authors of this article explore the intersection of moral enhancement, ethics, and Christianity. Trothen reviews the meaning and potential of moral enhancements, considering some of the risks and limitations. Trothen identifies three broad ethical questions, which all three authors agree upon, that arise from a Christian theological perspective: what it means to be human, choice, and social justice. Trothen concludes that respect for human dignity and social justice requires rejecting a reductive view of moral improvement as purely biochemical. Buttrey then argues that biomedical moral enhancement (BME) is simply one in a series of attempts to morally improve human beings and can be compared to other efforts such as neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics. He argues that BME cannot be simultaneously more reliable than moral education in virtue and no more restrictive of human freedom. He concludes by suggesting that tensions between BME and Thomistic virtue are even stronger due to Christian conceptions of martyrdom and radical self-denial. Finally, McQueen argues that Christianity emphasizes the common good and social justice as essential for human flourishing. Building on the foundation established by Trothen and Buttrey, McQueen insists that accurate cognitive knowledge is needed to make good conscience decisions, but emphasizes that right human action also requires the exercise of the will, which can be undermined by AI, automation, and perhaps also BME. She concludes by encouraging further attention to the true nature of human agency, human freedom, and wisdom in debates over AI and biomedical enhancement. The authors conclude that BMEs, if they become medically safe, may be theologically justifiable and helpful as a supplement to moral improvement.
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Karabekmez ME. Data Ethics in Digital Health and Genomics. New Bioeth 2021; 27:320-333. [PMID: 34747348 DOI: 10.1080/20502877.2021.1996965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The digital revolution has disruptively reshaped the way health services are provided and how research is conducted. This transformation has produced novel ethical challenges. The digitalization of health records, bioinformatics, molecular medicine, wearable biomedical technologies, biotechnology, and synthetic biology has created new biological data niches. How these data are shared, stored, distributed, and analyzed has created ethical problems regarding privacy, trust, accountability, fairness, and justice. This study investigates issues related to data-sharing permissions, fairness in secondary data distribution, and commercial and political conflicts of interest among individuals, companies, and states. In conclusion, establishing an agency to act as deputy trustee on behalf of individuals is recommended to intermediate the complex nature of informed consent. Focusing on decentralized digital technologies is recommended in order to catalyze the utilization of data and prevent discrimination without circulating data unnecessarily.
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Recommendations for Responsible Development and Application of Neurotechnologies. NEUROETHICS-NETH 2021; 14:365-386. [PMID: 33942016 PMCID: PMC8081770 DOI: 10.1007/s12152-021-09468-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Advancements in novel neurotechnologies, such as brain computer interfaces (BCI) and neuromodulatory devices such as deep brain stimulators (DBS), will have profound implications for society and human rights. While these technologies are improving the diagnosis and treatment of mental and neurological diseases, they can also alter individual agency and estrange those using neurotechnologies from their sense of self, challenging basic notions of what it means to be human. As an international coalition of interdisciplinary scholars and practitioners, we examine these challenges and make recommendations to mitigate negative consequences that could arise from the unregulated development or application of novel neurotechnologies. We explore potential ethical challenges in four key areas: identity and agency, privacy, bias, and enhancement. To address them, we propose (1) democratic and inclusive summits to establish globally-coordinated ethical and societal guidelines for neurotechnology development and application, (2) new measures, including “Neurorights,” for data privacy, security, and consent to empower neurotechnology users’ control over their data, (3) new methods of identifying and preventing bias, and (4) the adoption of public guidelines for safe and equitable distribution of neurotechnological devices.
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Górriz JM, Ramírez J, Ortíz A, Martínez-Murcia FJ, Segovia F, Suckling J, Leming M, Zhang YD, Álvarez-Sánchez JR, Bologna G, Bonomini P, Casado FE, Charte D, Charte F, Contreras R, Cuesta-Infante A, Duro RJ, Fernández-Caballero A, Fernández-Jover E, Gómez-Vilda P, Graña M, Herrera F, Iglesias R, Lekova A, de Lope J, López-Rubio E, Martínez-Tomás R, Molina-Cabello MA, Montemayor AS, Novais P, Palacios-Alonso D, Pantrigo JJ, Payne BR, de la Paz López F, Pinninghoff MA, Rincón M, Santos J, Thurnhofer-Hemsi K, Tsanas A, Varela R, Ferrández JM. Artificial intelligence within the interplay between natural and artificial computation: Advances in data science, trends and applications. Neurocomputing 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neucom.2020.05.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Steinert S, Friedrich O. Wired Emotions: Ethical Issues of Affective Brain-Computer Interfaces. SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING ETHICS 2020; 26:351-367. [PMID: 30868377 PMCID: PMC6978299 DOI: 10.1007/s11948-019-00087-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Ethical issues concerning brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) have already received a considerable amount of attention. However, one particular form of BCI has not received the attention that it deserves: Affective BCIs that allow for the detection and stimulation of affective states. This paper brings the ethical issues of affective BCIs in sharper focus. The paper briefly reviews recent applications of affective BCIs and considers ethical issues that arise from these applications. Ethical issues that affective BCIs share with other neurotechnologies are presented and ethical concerns that are specific to affective BCIs are identified and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Steinert
- Department of Values, Technology and Innovation, Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Orsolya Friedrich
- Institute of Ethics, History and Theory of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Lessingstr. 2, 80336 Munich, Germany
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Ienca M, Jotterand F, Elger BS. From Healthcare to Warfare and Reverse: How Should We Regulate Dual-Use Neurotechnology? Neuron 2018; 97:269-274. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Diaz-Piedra C, Rieiro H, Suárez J, Rios-Tejada F, Catena A, Di Stasi LL. Fatigue in the military: towards a fatigue detection test based on the saccadic velocity. Physiol Meas 2016; 37:N62-75. [PMID: 27531394 DOI: 10.1088/0967-3334/37/9/n62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Fatigue is a major contributing factor to operational errors. Therefore, the validation of objective and sensitive indices to detect fatigue is critical to prevent accidents and catastrophes. Whereas tests based on saccadic velocity (SV) have become popular, their sensitivity in the military is not yet clear, since most research has been conducted in laboratory settings using not fully validated instruments. Field studies remain scarce, especially in extreme conditions such as real flights. Here, we investigated the effects of real, long flights on SV. We assessed five newly commissioned military helicopter pilots during their aviation training. Pilots flew Sikorsky S-76C helicopters, under instrumental flight rules, for more than 2 h (ca. 150 min). Eye movements were recorded before and after the flight with an eye tracker using a standard guided-saccade task. We also collected subjective ratings of fatigue. SV significantly decreased from the Pre-Flight to the Post-Flight session in all pilots by around 3% (range: 1-4%). Subjective ratings showed the same tendency. We provide conclusive evidence about the high sensitivity of fatigue tests based on SV in real flight conditions, even in small samples. This result might offer military medical departments a valid and useful biomarker of warfighter physiological state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Diaz-Piedra
- Mind, Brain, & Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain. Joint Center University of Granada-Army Training and Doctrine Command (CEMIX UGR-MADOC), Granada, Spain. College of Nursing and Health Innovation, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
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Effects of long and short simulated flights on the saccadic eye movement velocity of aviators. Physiol Behav 2015; 153:91-6. [PMID: 26597121 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Aircrew fatigue is a major contributor to operational errors in civil and military aviation. Objective detection of pilot fatigue is thus critical to prevent aviation catastrophes. Previous work has linked fatigue to changes in oculomotor dynamics, but few studies have studied this relationship in critical safety environments. Here we measured the eye movements of US Marine Corps combat helicopter pilots before and after simulated flight missions of different durations.We found a decrease in saccadic velocities after long simulated flights compared to short simulated flights. These results suggest that saccadic velocity could serve as a biomarker of aviator fatigue.
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Abstract
Ever since Stone Age men discovered that knapping flint produced sharp stone edges that could be used in combat as well as for cooking and hunting, technological advances of all kinds have been adapted and adopted by the military.The opportunities provided by modern neuroscience are proving no exception, but their application in a military context is accompanied by complex practical and ethical considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Tracey
- Oxford Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain and at the Nuffield Division of Anaesthetics, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences. University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Rod Flower
- The William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
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Nelson JT, Tepe V. Neuromodulation research and application in the U.S. Department of Defense. Brain Stimul 2014; 8:247-52. [PMID: 25468072 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2014.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Revised: 10/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Modern neuromodulatory techniques for military applications have been explored for the past decade, with an intent to optimize operator performance and, ultimately, to improve overall military effectiveness. In light of potential military applications, some researchers have voiced concern about national security agency involvement in this area of research, and possible exploitation of research findings to support military objectives. The aim of this article is to examine the U.S. Department of Defense's interest in and application of neuromodulation. METHODS We explored articles, cases, and historical context to identify critical considerations of debate concerning dual use (i.e., national security and civilian) technologies, specifically focusing on non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS). DISCUSSION We review the background and recent examples of DoD-sponsored neuromodulation research, framed in the more general context of research that aims to optimize and/or rehabilitate human performance. We propose that concerns about military exploitation of neuromodulatory science and technology are not unique, but rather are part of a larger philosophic debate pertaining to military application of human performance science and technology. We consider unique aspects of the Department of Defense research enterprise--which includes programs crucial to the advancement of military medicine--and why it is well-situated to fund and perform such research. We conclude that debate concerning DoD investment in human performance research must recognize the significant potential for dual use (civilian, medical) benefit as well as the need for civilian scientific insight and influence. Military interests in the health and performance of service members provide research funding and impetus to dual use applications that will benefit the civilian community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy T Nelson
- Research Imaging Institute, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas.
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Sehm B, Ragert P. Why non-invasive brain stimulation should not be used in military and security services. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:553. [PMID: 24058339 PMCID: PMC3766817 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Sehm
- Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences Leipzig Leipzig, Germany
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Di Stasi LL, Catena A, Cañas JJ, Macknik SL, Martinez-Conde S. Saccadic velocity as an arousal index in naturalistic tasks. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:968-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2012] [Revised: 02/21/2013] [Accepted: 03/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Pickersgill M. The social life of the brain: Neuroscience in society. CURRENT SOCIOLOGY. LA SOCIOLOGIE CONTEMPORAINE 2013; 61:322-340. [PMID: 24285875 PMCID: PMC3835147 DOI: 10.1177/0011392113476464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Neuroscience is viewed by a range of actors and institutions as a powerful means of creating new knowledge about our selves and societies. This article documents the shifts in expertise and identities potentially being propelled by neuroscientific research. It details the framing and effects of neuroscience within several social domains, including education and mental health, discussing some of the intellectual and professional projects it has animated therein (such as neuroethics). The analysis attends to the cultural logics by which the brain is sometimes made salient in society; simultaneously, it points towards some of parameters of the territory within which the social life of the brain plays out. Instances of societal resistance and agnosticism are discussed, which may render problematic sociological research on neuroscience in society that assumes the universal import of neuroscientific knowledge (as either an object of celebration or critique). This article concludes with reflections on how sociotechnical novelty is produced and ascribed, and the implications of this.
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