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Johnson GE, Fei C, Wingreen NS, Bassler BL. Single-cell gene-expression measurements in Vibrio cholerae biofilms reveal spatiotemporal patterns underlying development. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.17.603784. [PMID: 39071398 PMCID: PMC11275835 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.17.603784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Bacteria commonly exist in multicellular, surface-attached communities called biofilms. Biofilms are central to ecology, medicine, and industry. The Vibrio cholerae pathogen forms biofilms from single founder cells that, via cell division, mature into three-dimensional structures with distinct, yet reproducible, regional architectures. To define mechanisms underlying biofilm developmental transitions, we establish a single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) approach that enables accurate quantitation of spatiotemporal gene-expression patterns in biofilms at individual-cell resolution. smFISH analyses of V. cholerae biofilm regulatory and structural genes demonstrate that, as biofilms mature, matrix gene expression decreases, and simultaneously, a pattern emerges in which matrix gene expression is largely confined to peripheral biofilm cells. Both quorum sensing and c-di-GMP-signaling are required to generate the proper temporal pattern of matrix gene expression, while c-di-GMP-signaling sets the regional expression pattern without input from quorum sensing. The smFISH strategy provides insight into mechanisms conferring particular fates to individual biofilm cells.
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2
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Greenwich JL, Eagan JL, Feirer N, Boswinkle K, Minasov G, Shuvalova L, Inniss NL, Raghavaiah J, Ghosh AK, Satchell KJF, Allen KD, Fuqua C. Control of biofilm formation by an Agrobacterium tumefaciens pterin-binding periplasmic protein conserved among diverse Proteobacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2319903121. [PMID: 38870058 PMCID: PMC11194511 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2319903121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Biofilm formation and surface attachment in multiple Alphaproteobacteria is driven by unipolar polysaccharide (UPP) adhesins. The pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens produces a UPP adhesin, which is regulated by the intracellular second messenger cyclic diguanylate monophosphate (c-di-GMP). Prior studies revealed that DcpA, a diguanylate cyclase-phosphodiesterase, is crucial in control of UPP production and surface attachment. DcpA is regulated by PruR, a protein with distant similarity to enzymatic domains known to coordinate the molybdopterin cofactor (MoCo). Pterins are bicyclic nitrogen-rich compounds, several of which are produced via a nonessential branch of the folate biosynthesis pathway, distinct from MoCo. The pterin-binding protein PruR controls DcpA activity, fostering c-di-GMP breakdown and dampening its synthesis. Pterins are excreted, and we report here that PruR associates with these metabolites in the periplasm, promoting interaction with the DcpA periplasmic domain. The pteridine reductase PruA, which reduces specific dihydro-pterin molecules to their tetrahydro forms, imparts control over DcpA activity through PruR. Tetrahydromonapterin preferentially associates with PruR relative to other related pterins, and the PruR-DcpA interaction is decreased in a pruA mutant. PruR and DcpA are encoded in an operon with wide conservation among diverse Proteobacteria including mammalian pathogens. Crystal structures reveal that PruR and several orthologs adopt a conserved fold, with a pterin-specific binding cleft that coordinates the bicyclic pterin ring. These findings define a pterin-responsive regulatory mechanism that controls biofilm formation and related c-di-GMP-dependent phenotypes in A. tumefaciens and potentially acts more widely in multiple proteobacterial lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Justin L. Eagan
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN47405
| | - Nathan Feirer
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN47405
| | - Kaleb Boswinkle
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA24061
| | - George Minasov
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL60611
- Center for Structural Biology of Infectious Diseases, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL60611
| | - Ludmilla Shuvalova
- Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL60611
| | - Nicole L. Inniss
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL60611
- Center for Structural Biology of Infectious Diseases, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL60611
| | - Jakka Raghavaiah
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN47907
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN47907
| | - Arun K. Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN47907
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN47907
| | - Karla J. F. Satchell
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL60611
- Center for Structural Biology of Infectious Diseases, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL60611
| | - Kylie D. Allen
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA24061
| | - Clay Fuqua
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN47405
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3
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Prentice JA, van de Weerd R, Bridges AA. Cell-lysis sensing drives biofilm formation in Vibrio cholerae. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2018. [PMID: 38443393 PMCID: PMC10914755 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46399-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Matrix-encapsulated communities of bacteria, called biofilms, are ubiquitous in the environment and are notoriously difficult to eliminate in clinical and industrial settings. Biofilm formation likely evolved as a mechanism to protect resident cells from environmental challenges, yet how bacteria undergo threat assessment to inform biofilm development remains unclear. Here we find that population-level cell lysis events induce the formation of biofilms by surviving Vibrio cholerae cells. Survivors detect threats by sensing a cellular component released through cell lysis, which we identify as norspermidine. Lysis sensing occurs via the MbaA receptor with genus-level specificity, and responsive biofilm cells are shielded from phage infection and attacks from other bacteria. Thus, our work uncovers a connection between bacterial lysis and biofilm formation that may be broadly conserved among microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jojo A Prentice
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Robert van de Weerd
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Andrew A Bridges
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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Liu C, Shi R, Jensen MS, Zhu J, Liu J, Liu X, Sun D, Liu W. The global regulation of c-di-GMP and cAMP in bacteria. MLIFE 2024; 3:42-56. [PMID: 38827514 PMCID: PMC11139211 DOI: 10.1002/mlf2.12104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Revised: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Nucleotide second messengers are highly versatile signaling molecules that regulate a variety of key biological processes in bacteria. The best-studied examples are cyclic AMP (cAMP) and bis-(3'-5')-cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP), which both act as global regulators. Global regulatory frameworks of c-di-GMP and cAMP in bacteria show several parallels but also significant variances. In this review, we illustrate the global regulatory models of the two nucleotide second messengers, compare the different regulatory frameworks between c-di-GMP and cAMP, and discuss the mechanisms and physiological significance of cross-regulation between c-di-GMP and cAMP. c-di-GMP responds to numerous signals dependent on a great number of metabolic enzymes, and it regulates various signal transduction pathways through its huge number of effectors with varying activities. In contrast, due to the limited quantity, the cAMP metabolic enzymes and its major effector are regulated at different levels by diverse signals. cAMP performs its global regulatory function primarily by controlling the transcription of a large number of genes via cAMP receptor protein (CRP) in most bacteria. This review can help us understand how bacteria use the two typical nucleotide second messengers to effectively coordinate and integrate various physiological processes, providing theoretical guidelines for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, School of Life SciencesJiangsu Normal UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Rui Shi
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, School of Life SciencesJiangsu Normal UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Marcus S. Jensen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, School of Life SciencesJiangsu Normal UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Jingrong Zhu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, School of Life SciencesJiangsu Normal UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Jiawen Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, School of Life SciencesJiangsu Normal UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Xiaobo Liu
- Key Laboratory of Metabolic Engineering and Biosynthesis Technology, Ministry of Industry and Information TechnologyNanjing University of Science and TechnologyNanjingChina
| | - Di Sun
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, School of Life SciencesJiangsu Normal UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Weijie Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, School of Life SciencesJiangsu Normal UniversityXuzhouChina
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Greenwich JL, Eagan JL, Feirer N, Boswinkle K, Minasov G, Shuvalova L, Inniss NL, Raghavaiah J, Ghosh AK, Satchell KJ, Allen KD, Fuqua C. Control of Biofilm Formation by an Agrobacterium tumefaciens Pterin-Binding Periplasmic Protein Conserved Among Pathogenic Bacteria. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.18.567607. [PMID: 38014264 PMCID: PMC10680838 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.18.567607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Biofilm formation and surface attachment in multiple Alphaproteobacteria is driven by unipolar polysaccharide (UPP) adhesins. The pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens produces a UPP adhesin, which is regulated by the intracellular second messenger cyclic diguanylate monophosphate (cdGMP). Prior studies revealed that DcpA, a diguanylate cyclase-phosphodiesterase (DGC-PDE), is crucial in control of UPP production and surface attachment. DcpA is regulated by PruR, a protein with distant similarity to enzymatic domains known to coordinate the molybdopterin cofactor (MoCo). Pterins are bicyclic nitrogen-rich compounds, several of which are formed via a non-essential branch of the folate biosynthesis pathway, distinct from MoCo. The pterin-binding protein PruR controls DcpA activity, fostering cdGMP breakdown and dampening its synthesis. Pterins are excreted and we report here that PruR associates with these metabolites in the periplasm, promoting interaction with the DcpA periplasmic domain. The pteridine reductase PruA, which reduces specific dihydro-pterin molecules to their tetrahydro forms, imparts control over DcpA activity through PruR. Tetrahydromonapterin preferentially associates with PruR relative to other related pterins, and the PruR-DcpA interaction is decreased in a pruA mutant. PruR and DcpA are encoded in an operon that is conserved amongst multiple Proteobacteria including mammalian pathogens. Crystal structures reveal that PruR and several orthologs adopt a conserved fold, with a pterin-specific binding cleft that coordinates the bicyclic pterin ring. These findings define a new pterin-responsive regulatory mechanism that controls biofilm formation and related cdGMP-dependent phenotypes in A. tumefaciens and is found in multiple additional bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Justin L. Eagan
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405 USA
| | - Nathan Feirer
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405 USA
| | - Kaleb Boswinkle
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - George Minasov
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611 USA
- Center for Structural Biology of Infectious Diseases, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611 USA
| | - Ludmilla Shuvalova
- Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611 USA
| | - Nicole L. Inniss
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611 USA
- Center for Structural Biology of Infectious Diseases, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611 USA
| | - Jakka Raghavaiah
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
| | - Arun K. Ghosh
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
| | - Karla J.F. Satchell
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611 USA
- Center for Structural Biology of Infectious Diseases, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611 USA
| | - Kylie D. Allen
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - Clay Fuqua
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405 USA
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Chávez-Jacobo VM, Becerra-Rivera VA, Guerrero G, Dunn MF. The Sinorhizobium meliloti NspS-MbaA system affects biofilm formation, exopolysaccharide production and motility in response to specific polyamines. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2023; 169:001293. [PMID: 36748569 PMCID: PMC9993111 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
We previously showed that specific polyamines (PAs) present in the extracellular environment markedly affect extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) production, biofilm formation and motility in Sinorhizobium meliloti Rm8530. We hypothesized that extracellular PA signals were sensed and transduced by the NspS and MbaA proteins, respectively, which are homologs of the PA-sensing, c-di-GMP modulating NspS-MbaA proteins described in Vibrio cholerae. Here we show that the decrease in biofilm formation and EPS production in the quorum-sensing (QS)-deficient S. meliloti wild-type strain 1021 in cultures containing putrescine or spermine did not occur in a 1021 nspS mutant (1021 nspS). The transcriptional expression of nspS in strain 1021 was significantly increased in cultures containing either of these polyamines, but not by exogenous cadaverine, 1,3-diaminopropane (DAP), spermidine (Spd) or norspermidine (NSpd). Cell aggregation in liquid cultures did not differ markedly between strain 1021 and 1021 nspS in the presence or absence of PAs. The S. meliloti QS-proficient Rm8530 wild-type and nspS mutant (Rm8530 nspS) produced similar levels of biofilm under control conditions and 3.2- and 2.2-fold more biofilm, respectively, in cultures with NSpd, but these changes did not correlate with EPS production. Cells of Rm8530 nspS aggregated from two- to several-fold more than the wild-type in cultures without PAs or in those containing Spm. NSpd, Spd and DAP differently affected swimming and swarming motility in strains 1021 and Rm8530 and their respective nspS mutants. nspS transcription in strain Rm8530 was greatly reduced by exogenous Spm. Bioinformatic analysis revealed similar secondary structures and functional domains in the MbaA proteins of S. meliloti and V. cholerae, while their NspS proteins differed in some residues implicated in polyamine recognition in the latter species. NspS-MbaA homologs occur in a small subset of soil and aquatic bacterial species that commonly interact with eukaryotes. We speculate that the S. meliloti NspS-MbaA system modulates biofilm formation, EPS production and motility in response to environmental or host plant-produced PAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor M Chávez-Jacobo
- Programa en Genómica Funcional de Procariotes, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62210, Mexico
| | - Víctor A Becerra-Rivera
- Programa en Genómica Funcional de Procariotes, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62210, Mexico
| | - Gabriela Guerrero
- Unidad de Análisis Bioinformáticos, Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62210, Mexico
| | - Michael F Dunn
- Programa en Genómica Funcional de Procariotes, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62210, Mexico
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The GGDEF-EAL protein CdgB from Azospirillum baldaniorum Sp245, is a dual function enzyme with potential polar localization. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278036. [PMID: 36417483 PMCID: PMC9683572 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Azospirillum baldaniorum Sp245, a plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium, can form biofilms through a process controlled by the second messenger cyclic diguanylate monophosphate (c-di-GMP). A. baldaniorum has a variety of proteins potentially involved in controlling the turnover of c-di-GMP many of which are coupled to sensory domains that could be involved in establishing a mutualistic relationship with the host. Here, we present in silico analysis and experimental characterization of the function of CdgB (AZOBR_p410089), a predicted MHYT-PAS-GGDEF-EAL multidomain protein from A. baldaniorum Sp245. When overproduced, CdgB behaves predominantly as a c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase (PDE) in A. baldaniorum Sp245. It inhibits biofilm formation and extracellular polymeric substances production and promotes swimming motility. However, a CdgB variant with a degenerate PDE domain behaves as diguanylate cyclase (DGC). This strongly suggest that CdgB is capable of dual activity. Variants with alterations in the DGC domain and the MHYT domain negatively affects extracellular polymeric substances production and induction of swimming motility. Surprisingly, we observed that overproduction of CdgB results in increased c-di-GMP accumulation in the heterologous host Escherichia coli, suggesting under certain conditions, the WT CdgB variant can behave predominantly as a DGC. Furthermore, we also demonstrated that CdgB is anchored to the cell membrane and localizes potentially to the cell poles. This localization is dependent on the presence of the MHYT domain. In summary, our results suggest that CdgB can provide versatility to signaling modules that control motile and sessile lifestyles in response to key environmental signals in A. baldaniorum.
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8
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Synergy between c-di-GMP and Quorum-Sensing Signaling in Vibrio cholerae Biofilm Morphogenesis. J Bacteriol 2022; 204:e0024922. [PMID: 36154360 PMCID: PMC9578409 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00249-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Transitions between individual and communal lifestyles allow bacteria to adapt to changing environments. Bacteria must integrate information encoded in multiple sensory cues to appropriately undertake these transitions. Here, we investigate how two prevalent sensory inputs converge on biofilm morphogenesis: quorum sensing, which endows bacteria with the ability to communicate and coordinate group behaviors, and second messenger c-di-GMP signaling, which allows bacteria to detect and respond to environmental stimuli. We use Vibrio cholerae as our model system, the autoinducer AI-2 to modulate quorum sensing, and the polyamine norspermidine to modulate NspS-MbaA-mediated c-di-GMP production. Individually, AI-2 and norspermidine drive opposing biofilm phenotypes, with AI-2 repressing and norspermidine inducing biofilm formation. Surprisingly, however, when AI-2 and norspermidine are simultaneously detected, they act synergistically to increase biofilm biomass and biofilm cell density. We show that this effect is caused by quorum-sensing-mediated activation of nspS-mbaA expression, which increases the levels of NspS and MbaA, and in turn, c-di-GMP biosynthesis, in response to norspermidine. Increased MbaA-synthesized c-di-GMP activates the VpsR transcription factor, driving elevated expression of genes encoding key biofilm matrix components. Thus, in the context of biofilm morphogenesis in V. cholerae, quorum-sensing regulation of c-di-GMP-metabolizing receptor levels connects changes in cell population density to detection of environmental stimuli. IMPORTANCE The development of multicellular communities, known as biofilms, facilitates beneficial functions of gut microbiome bacteria and makes bacterial pathogens recalcitrant to treatment. Understanding how bacteria regulate the biofilm life cycle is fundamental to biofilm control in industrial processes and in medicine. Here, we demonstrate how two major sensory inputs—quorum-sensing communication and second messenger c-di-GMP signaling—jointly regulate biofilm morphogenesis in the global pathogen Vibrio cholerae. We characterize the mechanism underlying a surprising synergy between quorum-sensing and c-di-GMP signaling in controlling biofilm development. Thus, the work connects changes in cell population density to detection of environmental stimuli in a pathogen of clinical significance.
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Bridges AA, Prentice JA, Wingreen NS, Bassler BL. Signal Transduction Network Principles Underlying Bacterial Collective Behaviors. Annu Rev Microbiol 2022; 76:235-257. [PMID: 35609948 PMCID: PMC9463083 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-042922-122020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria orchestrate collective behaviors and accomplish feats that would be unsuccessful if carried out by a lone bacterium. Processes undertaken by groups of bacteria include bioluminescence, biofilm formation, virulence factor production, and release of public goods that are shared by the community. Collective behaviors are controlled by signal transduction networks that integrate sensory information and transduce the information internally. Here, we discuss network features and mechanisms that, even in the face of dramatically changing environments, drive precise execution of bacterial group behaviors. We focus on representative quorum-sensing and second-messenger cyclic dimeric GMP (c-di-GMP) signal relays. We highlight ligand specificity versus sensitivity, how small-molecule ligands drive discrimination of kin versus nonkin, signal integration mechanisms, single-input sensory systems versus coincidence detectors, and tuning of input-output dynamics via feedback regulation. We summarize how different features of signal transduction systems allow groups of bacteria to successfully interpret and collectively react to dynamically changing environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Bridges
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA; , , ,
| | - Jojo A Prentice
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA; , , ,
| | - Ned S Wingreen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA; , , ,
- Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Bonnie L Bassler
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA; , , ,
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
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