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Thomas GWC, Wang RJ, Nguyen J, Alan Harris R, Raveendran M, Rogers J, Hahn MW. Origins and Long-Term Patterns of Copy-Number Variation in Rhesus Macaques. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 38:1460-1471. [PMID: 33226085 PMCID: PMC8042740 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msaa303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations play a key role in the development of disease in an individual and the evolution of traits within species. Recent work in humans and other primates has clarified the origins and patterns of single-nucleotide variants, showing that most arise in the father’s germline during spermatogenesis. It remains unknown whether larger mutations, such as deletions and duplications of hundreds or thousands of nucleotides, follow similar patterns. Such mutations lead to copy-number variation (CNV) within and between species, and can have profound effects by deleting or duplicating genes. Here, we analyze patterns of CNV mutations in 32 rhesus macaque individuals from 14 parent–offspring trios. We find the rate of CNV mutations per generation is low (less than one per genome) and we observe no correlation between parental age and the number of CNVs that are passed on to offspring. We also examine segregating CNVs within the rhesus macaque sample and compare them to a similar data set from humans, finding that both species have far more segregating deletions than duplications. We contrast this with long-term patterns of gene copy-number evolution between 17 mammals, where the proportion of deletions that become fixed along the macaque lineage is much smaller than the proportion of segregating deletions. These results suggest purifying selection acting on deletions, such that the majority of them are removed from the population over time. Rhesus macaques are an important biomedical model organism, so these results will aid in our understanding of this species and the disease models it supports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregg W C Thomas
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
| | - Richard J Wang
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Jelena Nguyen
- Department of Computer Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - R Alan Harris
- Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Muthuswamy Raveendran
- Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jeffrey Rogers
- Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Matthew W Hahn
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA.,Department of Computer Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
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2
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Bergero R, Ellis P, Haerty W, Larcombe L, Macaulay I, Mehta T, Mogensen M, Murray D, Nash W, Neale MJ, O'Connor R, Ottolini C, Peel N, Ramsey L, Skinner B, Suh A, Summers M, Sun Y, Tidy A, Rahbari R, Rathje C, Immler S. Meiosis and beyond - understanding the mechanistic and evolutionary processes shaping the germline genome. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:822-841. [PMID: 33615674 PMCID: PMC8246768 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The separation of germ cell populations from the soma is part of the evolutionary transition to multicellularity. Only genetic information present in the germ cells will be inherited by future generations, and any molecular processes affecting the germline genome are therefore likely to be passed on. Despite its prevalence across taxonomic kingdoms, we are only starting to understand details of the underlying micro-evolutionary processes occurring at the germline genome level. These include segregation, recombination, mutation and selection and can occur at any stage during germline differentiation and mitotic germline proliferation to meiosis and post-meiotic gamete maturation. Selection acting on germ cells at any stage from the diploid germ cell to the haploid gametes may cause significant deviations from Mendelian inheritance and may be more widespread than previously assumed. The mechanisms that affect and potentially alter the genomic sequence and allele frequencies in the germline are pivotal to our understanding of heritability. With the rise of new sequencing technologies, we are now able to address some of these unanswered questions. In this review, we comment on the most recent developments in this field and identify current gaps in our knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Bergero
- Institute of Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3JTU.K.
| | - Peter Ellis
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyCT2 7NJU.K.
| | | | - Lee Larcombe
- Applied Exomics LtdStevenage Bioscience CatalystStevenageSG1 2FXU.K.
| | - Iain Macaulay
- Earlham InstituteNorwich Research ParkNorwichNR4 7UZU.K.
| | - Tarang Mehta
- Earlham InstituteNorwich Research ParkNorwichNR4 7UZU.K.
| | - Mette Mogensen
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorwichNR4 7TJU.K.
| | - David Murray
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorwichNR4 7TJU.K.
| | - Will Nash
- Earlham InstituteNorwich Research ParkNorwichNR4 7UZU.K.
| | - Matthew J. Neale
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, School of Life SciencesUniversity of SussexBrightonBN1 9RHU.K.
| | | | | | - Ned Peel
- Earlham InstituteNorwich Research ParkNorwichNR4 7UZU.K.
| | - Luke Ramsey
- The James Hutton InstituteInvergowrieDundeeDD2 5DAU.K.
| | - Ben Skinner
- School of Life SciencesUniversity of EssexColchesterCO4 3SQU.K.
| | - Alexander Suh
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorwichNR4 7TJU.K.
- Department of Organismal BiologyUppsala UniversityNorbyvägen 18DUppsala752 36Sweden
| | - Michael Summers
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyCT2 7NJU.K.
- The Bridge Centre1 St Thomas Street, London BridgeLondonSE1 9RYU.K.
| | - Yu Sun
- Norwich Medical SchoolUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research Park, Colney LnNorwichNR4 7UGU.K.
| | - Alison Tidy
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of Nottingham, Plant Science, Sutton Bonington CampusSutton BoningtonLE12 5RDU.K.
| | | | - Claudia Rathje
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyCT2 7NJU.K.
| | - Simone Immler
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorwichNR4 7TJU.K.
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3
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Kinoshita T, Mikami M, Ayabe T, Matsubara K, Ono H, Ohki K, Fukami M, Katoh-Fukui Y. Frequency of Common Copy-Number Variations at 15q11.2q13 in Sperm of Healthy Men. Cytogenet Genome Res 2019; 159:66-73. [PMID: 31639787 DOI: 10.1159/000503267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The genomic region at 15q11.2q13 represents a hotspot for copy-number variations (CNVs) due to nonallelic homologous recombination. Previous studies have suggested that the development of 15q11.2q13 deletions in sperm may be affected by seasonal factors because patients with Prader-Willi syndrome resulting from 15q11.2q13 deletions on paternally derived chromosomes showed autumn-dominant birth seasonality. The present study aimed to determine the frequency of 15q11.2q13 CNVs in sperm of healthy men and clarify the effects of various environmental factors, i.e., age, smoking status, alcohol intake, and season, on the frequency. Thirty volunteers were asked to provide semen samples and clinical information once in each season of a year. The rates of 15q11.2q13 CNVs were examined using 2-color FISH. The results were statistically analyzed using a generalized estimating equation with negative binomial distribution and a log link function. Consequently, informative data were obtained from 83 samples of 26 individuals. The rates of deletions and duplications ranged from 0.04 to 0.48% and from 0.08 to 0.30%, respectively. The rates were not correlated with the age, smoking status, or alcohol intake. Sperm produced in winter showed 1.2 to 1.4-fold high rates for both deletions and duplications as compared with sperm produced in the other seasons; however, there was no significant difference. These results demonstrate high and variable CNV rates at 15q11.2q13 in sperm of healthy men. These CNVs appear to occur independent of the age, smoking status, or alcohol intake, while the effect of season remains inconclusive. Our results merit further validation.
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Algady W, Louzada S, Carpenter D, Brajer P, Färnert A, Rooth I, Ngasala B, Yang F, Shaw MA, Hollox EJ. The Malaria-Protective Human Glycophorin Structural Variant DUP4 Shows Somatic Mosaicism and Association with Hemoglobin Levels. Am J Hum Genet 2018; 103:769-776. [PMID: 30388403 PMCID: PMC6218809 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycophorin A and glycophorin B are red blood cell surface proteins and are both receptors for the parasite Plasmodium falciparum, which is the principal cause of malaria in sub-Saharan Africa. DUP4 is a complex structural genomic variant that carries extra copies of a glycophorin A-glycophorin B fusion gene and has a dramatic effect on malaria risk by reducing the risk of severe malaria by up to 40%. Using fiber-FISH and Illumina sequencing, we validate the structural arrangement of the glycophorin locus in the DUP4 variant and reveal somatic variation in copy number of the glycophorin B-glycophorin A fusion gene. By developing a simple, specific, PCR-based assay for DUP4, we show that the DUP4 variant reaches a frequency of 13% in the population of a malaria-endemic village in south-eastern Tanzania. We genotype a substantial proportion of that village and demonstrate an association of DUP4 genotype with hemoglobin levels, a phenotype related to malaria, using a family-based association test. Taken together, we show that DUP4 is a complex structural variant that may be susceptible to somatic variation and show that DUP4 is associated with a malarial-related phenotype in a longitudinally followed population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walid Algady
- Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Sandra Louzada
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Danielle Carpenter
- Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Paulina Brajer
- Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Anna Färnert
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, 17176 Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Infectious Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm 17176, Sweden
| | - Ingegerd Rooth
- Nyamisati Malaria Research, Rufiji, National Institute for Medical Research, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Billy Ngasala
- Department of Parasitology and Medical Entomology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; Department of Women's and Children's Health, International Maternal and Child Health (IMCH), Uppsala Universitet, 75185 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Fengtang Yang
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Marie-Anne Shaw
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research at St James's, University of Leeds, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Edward J Hollox
- Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK.
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5
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Chaste P, Roeder K, Devlin B. The Yin and Yang of Autism Genetics: How Rare De Novo and Common Variations Affect Liability. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 2017; 18:167-187. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genom-083115-022647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Chaste
- Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, 75014 Paris, France
- Centre hospitalier Sainte-Anne, 75674 Paris, France
| | - Kathryn Roeder
- Department of Statistics and Department of Computational Biology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213
| | - Bernie Devlin
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213
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6
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Oluwole OA, Revay T, Mahboubi K, Favetta LA, King WA. Somatic Mosaicism in Bulls Estimated from Genome-Wide CNV Array and TSPY Gene Copy Numbers. Cytogenet Genome Res 2016; 149:176-181. [DOI: 10.1159/000448368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Somatic mosaicism has become a focus in human research due to the implications of individual genetic variability in disease. Here, we assessed somatic copy number variations (CNVs) in Holstein bulls in 2 respects. We estimated genome-wide CNVs and assayed CNVs of the TSPY gene, the most variable bovine gene from the Y chromosome. Somatic tissues (blood, lung, heart, muscle, testis, and brain) of 4 bulls were arrayed on the Illumina Bovine SNP50k chip and qPCR tested for TSPY copy numbers. Our results showed extensive copy number divergence in tissues within the same animal as well as significant copy number alterations of TSPY. We detected a mean of 31 CNVs per animal among which 14 were of germline origin, as they were constantly present in all investigated tissues of the animal, while 18 were specific to 1 tissue. Thus, 57% of the total number of detected CNVs was the result of de novo somatic events. Further, TSPY copy number was found to vary significantly among tissues as well as among the same tissue type from different animals in a wide range from 7 to 224% of the calibrator. Our study shows significant autosomal and Y-chromosomal de novo somatic CNV in bulls.
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7
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Gratten J, Wray NR, Peyrot WJ, McGrath JJ, Visscher PM, Goddard ME. Risk of psychiatric illness from advanced paternal age is not predominantly from de novo mutations. Nat Genet 2016; 48:718-24. [PMID: 27213288 DOI: 10.1038/ng.3577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The offspring of older fathers have higher risk of psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and autism. Paternal-age-related de novo mutations are widely assumed to be the underlying causal mechanism, and, although such mutations must logically make some contribution, there are alternative explanations (for example, elevated liability to psychiatric illness may delay fatherhood). We used population genetic models based on empirical observations of key parameters (for example, mutation rate, prevalence, and heritability) to assess the genetic relationship between paternal age and risk of psychiatric illness. These models suggest that age-related mutations are unlikely to explain much of the increased risk of psychiatric disorders in children of older fathers. Conversely, a model incorporating a weak correlation between age at first child and liability to psychiatric illness matched epidemiological observations. Our results suggest that genetic risk factors shared by older fathers and their offspring are a credible alternative explanation to de novo mutations for risk to children of older fathers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Gratten
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Naomi R Wray
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Wouter J Peyrot
- Department of Psychiatry, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - John J McGrath
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, Park Centre for Mental Health, Wacol, Queensland, Australia
| | - Peter M Visscher
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael E Goddard
- Department of Primary Industries, Biosciences Research Division, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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8
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Carvalho CMB, Lupski JR. Mechanisms underlying structural variant formation in genomic disorders. Nat Rev Genet 2016; 17:224-38. [PMID: 26924765 DOI: 10.1038/nrg.2015.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 414] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
With the recent burst of technological developments in genomics, and the clinical implementation of genome-wide assays, our understanding of the molecular basis of genomic disorders, specifically the contribution of structural variation to disease burden, is evolving quickly. Ongoing studies have revealed a ubiquitous role for genome architecture in the formation of structural variants at a given locus, both in DNA recombination-based processes and in replication-based processes. These reports showcase the influence of repeat sequences on genomic stability and structural variant complexity and also highlight the tremendous plasticity and dynamic nature of our genome in evolution, health and disease susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia M B Carvalho
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou - FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, MG 30190-002, Brazil
| | - James R Lupski
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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9
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Abstract
During meiosis, numerous DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are formed as part of the normal developmental program. This seemingly destructive behavior is necessary for successful meiosis, since repair of the DSBs through homologous recombination (HR) helps to produce physical links between the homologous chromosomes essential for correct chromosome segregation later in meiosis. However, DSB formation at such a massive scale also introduces opportunities to generate gross chromosomal rearrangements. In this review, we explore ways in which meiotic DSBs can result in such genomic alterations.
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10
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Conover HN, Argueso JL. Contrasting mechanisms of de novo copy number mutagenesis suggest the existence of different classes of environmental copy number mutagens. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2016; 57:3-9. [PMID: 26247157 DOI: 10.1002/em.21967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Revised: 07/05/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
While gene copy number variations (CNVs) are abundant in the human genome, and often are associated with disease consequences, the mutagenic pathways and environmental exposures that cause these large structural mutations are understudied relative to conventional nucleotide substitutions in DNA. The members of the environmental mutagenesis community are currently seeking to remedy this deficiency, and there is a renewed interest in the development of mutagenicity assays to identify and characterize compounds that may induce de novo CNVs in humans. To achieve this goal, it is critically important to acknowledge that CNVs exist in two very distinct classes: nonrecurrent and recurrent CNVs. The goal of this commentary is to emphasize the deep contrasts that exist between the proposed pathways that lead to these two mutation classes. Nonrecurrent de novo CNVs originate primarily in mitotic cells through replication-dependent DNA repair pathways that involve microhomologies (<10 bp), and are detected at higher frequency in children of older fathers. In contrast, recurrent de novo CNVs are most often formed in meiotic cells through homologous recombination between nonallelic large low-copy repeats (>10,000 bp), without an associated paternal age effect. Given the biological differences between the two CNV classes, it is our belief that nonrecurrent and recurrent CN mutagens will probably differ substantially in their modes of action. Therefore, each CNV class may require their own uniquely designed assays, so that we as a field may succeed in uncovering the broadest possible spectrum of environmental CN mutagens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailey N Conover
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Institute for Genome Architecture and Function, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Juan Lucas Argueso
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Institute for Genome Architecture and Function, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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11
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Hillmer M, Wagner D, Summerer A, Daiber M, Mautner VF, Messiaen L, Cooper DN, Kehrer-Sawatzki H. Fine mapping of meiotic NAHR-associated crossovers causing large NF1 deletions. Hum Mol Genet 2015; 25:484-96. [PMID: 26614388 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddv487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Large deletions encompassing the NF1 gene and its flanking regions belong to the group of genomic disorders caused by copy number changes that are mediated by the local genomic architecture. Although nonallelic homologous recombination (NAHR) is known to be a major mutational mechanism underlying such genomic copy number changes, the sequence determinants of NAHR location and frequency are still poorly understood since few high-resolution mapping studies of NAHR hotspots have been performed to date. Here, we have characterized two NAHR hotspots, PRS1 and PRS2, separated by 20 kb and located within the low-copy repeats NF1-REPa and NF1-REPc, which flank the human NF1 gene region. High-resolution mapping of the crossover sites identified in 78 type 1 NF1 deletions mediated by NAHR indicated that PRS2 is a much stronger NAHR hotspot than PRS1 since 80% of these deletions exhibited crossovers within PRS2, whereas 20% had crossovers within PRS1. The identification of the most common strand exchange regions of these 78 deletions served to demarcate the cores of the PRS1 and PRS2 hotspots encompassing 1026 and 1976 bp, respectively. Several sequence features were identified that may influence hotspot intensity and direct the positional preference of NAHR to the hotspot cores. These features include regions of perfect sequence identity encompassing 700 bp at the hotspot core, the presence of PRDM9 binding sites perfectly matching the consensus motif for the most common PRDM9 variant, specific pre-existing patterns of histone modification and open chromatin conformations that are likely to facilitate PRDM9 binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morten Hillmer
- Institute of Human Genetics, University of Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - David Wagner
- Institute of Human Genetics, University of Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Anna Summerer
- Institute of Human Genetics, University of Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Michaela Daiber
- Institute of Human Genetics, University of Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Victor-Felix Mautner
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Hamburg Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ludwine Messiaen
- Medical Genomics Laboratory, Department of Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35242, USA and
| | - David N Cooper
- Institute of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK
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12
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Lee BK, McGrath JJ. Advancing parental age and autism: multifactorial pathways. Trends Mol Med 2015; 21:118-25. [PMID: 25662027 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2014.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2014] [Revised: 11/07/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Converging evidence from epidemiological, genetic, and animal studies supports the hypothesis that advancing parental age, both of the father and mother, increases the risk of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in offspring. Paternal age has received considerable attention, with whole-genome sequencing studies linking older fathers to higher rates of de novo mutations and increased risk of ASD. The current evidence suggests that the increased risk of ASD in the offspring of older mothers may be related to mechanisms different from those operating in older fathers. Causal pathways probably involve the interaction of multiple risk factors. Although the etiology of ASD is still poorly understood, studies of parental age provide clues into the genetic and environ-mental mechanisms that mediate the risk of ASD.
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