1
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Park S, Kim MA, Sohn YC. Characterization of myoinhibitory peptide signaling system and its implication in larval metamorphosis and spawning behavior in Pacific abalone. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2024; 353:114521. [PMID: 38621462 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2024.114521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Myoinhibitory peptides (MIPs) affect various physiological functions, including juvenile hormone signaling, muscle contraction, larval development, and reproduction in invertebrates. Although MIPs are ligands for MIP and/or sex peptide receptors (MIP/SPRs) in diverse arthropods and model organisms belonging to Lophotrochozoa, the MIP signaling system has not yet been fully investigated in mollusks. In this study, we identified the MIP signaling system in the Pacific abalone Haliotis discus hannai (Hdh). Similar to the invertebrate MIPs, a total of eight paracopies of MIPs (named Hdh-MIP1 to Hdh-MIP8), harboring a WX5-7Wamide motif, except for Hdh-MIP2, were found in the Hdh-MIP precursor. Furthermore, we characterized a functional Hdh-MIPR, which responded to the Hdh-MIPs, except for Hdh-MIP2, possibly linked with the PKC/Ca2+ and PKA/cAMP signaling pathways. Hdh-MIPs delayed larval metamorphosis but increased the spawning behavior. These results suggest that the Hdh-MIP signaling system provides insights into the unique function of MIP in invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sungwoo Park
- Department of Marine Bioscience, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi Ae Kim
- East Coast Life Sciences Institute, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Chang Sohn
- Department of Marine Bioscience, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea.
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2
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Istiban MN, De Fruyt N, Kenis S, Beets I. Evolutionary conserved peptide and glycoprotein hormone-like neuroendocrine systems in C. elegans. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2024; 584:112162. [PMID: 38290646 PMCID: PMC11004728 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2024.112162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Peptides and protein hormones form the largest group of secreted signals that mediate intercellular communication and are central regulators of physiology and behavior in all animals. Phylogenetic analyses and biochemical identifications of peptide-receptor systems reveal a broad evolutionary conservation of these signaling systems at the molecular level. Substantial progress has been made in recent years on characterizing the physiological and putative ancestral roles of many peptide systems through comparative studies in invertebrate models. Several peptides and protein hormones are not only molecularly conserved but also have conserved roles across animal phyla. Here, we focus on functional insights gained in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans that, with its compact and well-described nervous system, provides a powerful model to dissect neuroendocrine signaling networks involved in the control of physiology and behavior. We summarize recent discoveries on the evolutionary conservation and knowledge on the functions of peptide and protein hormone systems in C. elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majdulin Nabil Istiban
- Neural Signaling and Circuit Plasticity, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nathan De Fruyt
- Neural Signaling and Circuit Plasticity, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Signe Kenis
- Neural Signaling and Circuit Plasticity, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Isabel Beets
- Neural Signaling and Circuit Plasticity, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
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3
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Yang Z, Zhang L, Zhang W, Tian X, Lai W, Lin D, Feng Y, Jiang W, Zhang Z, Zhang Z. Identification of the principal neuropeptide MIP and its action pathway in larval settlement of the echiuran worm Urechis unicinctus. BMC Genomics 2024; 25:337. [PMID: 38641568 PMCID: PMC11027379 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-024-10228-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Larval settlement and metamorphosis represent critical events in the life history of marine benthic animals. Myoinhibitory peptide (MIP) plays a pivotal role in larval settlement of marine invertebrates. However, the molecular mechanisms of MIP involved in this process are not well understood. RESULTS In this study, we evaluated the effects of thirteen MIP mature peptides on triggering the larval settlement of Urechis unicinctus (Xenopneusta, Urechidae), and determined that MIP2 was the principal neuropeptide. Transcriptomic analysis was employed to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the MIP2-treated larvae and normal early-segmentation larvae. Both cAMP and calcium signaling pathways were enriched in the DEGs of the MIP2-treated larvae, and two neuropeptide receptor genes (Spr, Fmrfar) were up-regulated in the MIP2-treated larvae. The activation of the SPR-cAMP pathway by MIP2 was experimentally validated in HEK293T cells. Furthermore, fourteen cilia-related genes, including Tctex1d2, Cfap45, Ift43, Ift74, Ift22, Cav1 and Mns1, etc. exhibited down-regulated expression in the MIP2-treated larvae. Whole-mount in situ hybridization identified two selected ciliary genes, Tctex1d2 and Cfap45, were specially expressed in circumoral ciliary cells of the early-segmentation larvae. Knocking down Tctex1d2 mRNA levels by in vivo RNA interference significantly increased the larval settlement rate. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that MIP2 inhibits the function of the cilia-related genes, such as Tctex1d2, through the SPR-cAMP-PKA pathway, thereby inducing larval settlement in U. unicinctus. The study contributes important data to the understanding of neuropeptide regulation in larval settlement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Yang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Aquatic Germplasm of Hainan Province, Sanya Ocean Institute, Ocean University of China, Sanya, China
| | - Long Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Aquatic Germplasm of Hainan Province, Sanya Ocean Institute, Ocean University of China, Sanya, China
| | - Wenqing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Aquatic Germplasm of Hainan Province, Sanya Ocean Institute, Ocean University of China, Sanya, China
| | - Xinhua Tian
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Aquatic Germplasm of Hainan Province, Sanya Ocean Institute, Ocean University of China, Sanya, China
| | - Wenyuan Lai
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Dawei Lin
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Aquatic Germplasm of Hainan Province, Sanya Ocean Institute, Ocean University of China, Sanya, China
| | - Yuxin Feng
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Aquatic Germplasm of Hainan Province, Sanya Ocean Institute, Ocean University of China, Sanya, China
| | - Wenwen Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Aquatic Germplasm of Hainan Province, Sanya Ocean Institute, Ocean University of China, Sanya, China
| | - Zhengrui Zhang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.
| | - Zhifeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Aquatic Germplasm of Hainan Province, Sanya Ocean Institute, Ocean University of China, Sanya, China.
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.
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4
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Zhang G, Cao S, Wang H, Cao Z, Wei B, Niu C. Identification of a new gustatory receptor BminGR59b tuned to host wax in a specialist, Bactrocera minax (Diptera: Tephritidae). Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 253:127180. [PMID: 37838119 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 09/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023]
Abstract
Host location plays a pivotal role in the coevolution between insects and plants, particularly for specialist insect herbivores with a limited host range. However, how specialists precisely select the appropriate site for oviposition through gustatory system remains elusive. In this study, we investigated the effects of the gustatory system on the host plant selection of a devastating pest in Citrus spp., Bactrocera minax, by conducting behavioral assays. Through genomic and transcriptomic data analysis as well as RNAi technology, we identified a novel gustatory receptor, BminGR59b, highly expressed in the forelegs of female B. minax, which played a critical role in host plant selection before oviposition decision. Additionally, our results encompassing heterologous expression in Sf9 cells and oviposition behavior assay revealed that n-eicosane is the ligand for BminGR59b. Finally, employing the dual luciferase reporter system alongside yeast one-hybrid techniques and RNAi, we verified that the transcription factor BminCEBP regulated the up-regulation of BminGR59b in sexually matured adults. These findings offer new insights into the close-range host fruit recognition and selection for oviposition in a specialist tephritid fruit fly B. minax, which also sheds light on the transcriptional regulation mechanisms underlying the gustatory-mediated oviposition in specialist herbivores for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guijian Zhang
- College of Plant Science & Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Shuai Cao
- College of Plant Science & Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Haoran Wang
- College of Plant Science & Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Zhen Cao
- College of Plant Science & Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Bingbing Wei
- College of Plant Science & Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Changying Niu
- College of Plant Science & Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China.
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5
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Beets I, Zels S, Vandewyer E, Demeulemeester J, Caers J, Baytemur E, Courtney A, Golinelli L, Hasakioğulları İ, Schafer WR, Vértes PE, Mirabeau O, Schoofs L. System-wide mapping of peptide-GPCR interactions in C. elegans. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113058. [PMID: 37656621 PMCID: PMC7615250 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptides and peptide hormones are ancient, widespread signaling molecules that underpin almost all brain functions. They constitute a broad ligand-receptor network, mainly by binding to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). However, the organization of the peptidergic network and roles of many peptides remain elusive, as our insight into peptide-receptor interactions is limited and many peptide GPCRs are still orphan receptors. Here we report a genome-wide peptide-GPCR interaction map in Caenorhabditis elegans. By reverse pharmacology screening of over 55,384 possible interactions, we identify 461 cognate peptide-GPCR couples that uncover a broad signaling network with specific and complex combinatorial interactions encoded across and within single peptidergic genes. These interactions provide insights into peptide functions and evolution. Combining our dataset with phylogenetic analysis supports peptide-receptor co-evolution and conservation of at least 14 bilaterian peptidergic systems in C. elegans. This resource lays a foundation for system-wide analysis of the peptidergic network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Beets
- Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Sven Zels
- Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Jonas Demeulemeester
- The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, UK; VIB - KU Leuven Center for Cancer Biology, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Oncology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jelle Caers
- Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Esra Baytemur
- Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Amy Courtney
- Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | | | | | - William R Schafer
- Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Petra E Vértes
- Department of Psychiatry, Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Olivier Mirabeau
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Bioinformatics and Biostatistics Hub, Inserm U1224, Brain-Immune Communication Lab, 75015 Paris, France
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6
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Tezze C, Amendolagine FI, Nogara L, Baraldo M, Ciciliot S, Arcidiacono D, Zaramella A, Masiero G, Ferrarese G, Realdon S, Blaauw B, Detienne G, Beliën AT, Sandri M, Mercken EM. A combination of metformin and galantamine exhibits synergistic benefits in the treatment of sarcopenia. JCI Insight 2023; 8:e168787. [PMID: 37551712 PMCID: PMC10445681 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.168787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Age-associated sarcopenia, characterized by a progressive loss in muscle mass and strength, is the largest cause of frailty and disability in the elderly worldwide. Current treatments involve nonpharmacological guidelines that few subjects can abide by, highlighting the need for effective drugs. Preclinical models were employed to test the benefits of RJx-01, a combination drug composed of metformin and galantamine, on sarcopenia. In worms, RJx-01 treatment improved lifespan, locomotion, pharyngeal pumping, and muscle fiber organization. The synergistic effects of RJx-01 were recapitulated in a transgenic mouse model that displays an exacerbated aging phenotype (Opa1-/-). In these mice, RJx-01 ameliorated physical performance, muscle mass and force, neuromuscular junction stability, and systemic inflammation. RJx-01 also improved physical performance and muscle strength in 22-month-old WT mice and also improved skeletal muscle ultrastructure, mitochondrial morphology, autophagy, lysosomal function, and satellite cell content. Denervation and myofiber damage were decreased in RJx-01-treated animals compared with controls. RJx-01 improved muscle quality rather than quantity, indicating that the improvement in quality underlies the beneficial effects of the combination drug. The studies herein indicate synergistic beneficial effects of RJx-01 in the treatment of sarcopenia and support the pursuit of RJx-01 in a human clinical trial as a therapeutic intervention for sarcopenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Tezze
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy
| | - Francesco Ivan Amendolagine
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy
| | - Leonardo Nogara
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy
| | - Martina Baraldo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy
| | - Stefano Ciciliot
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy
| | - Diletta Arcidiacono
- Gastroenterology Unit, Veneto Institute of Oncology IOV-IRCCS, Padova, Italy
| | - Alice Zaramella
- Gastroenterology Unit, Veneto Institute of Oncology IOV-IRCCS, Padova, Italy
| | - Giulio Masiero
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy
| | - Giulia Ferrarese
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy
| | - Stefano Realdon
- Oncological Gastroenterology, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Bert Blaauw
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy
| | | | | | - Marco Sandri
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy
- Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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7
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Brandel-Ankrapp KL, Arey RN. Uncovering novel regulators of memory using C. elegans genetic and genomic analysis. Biochem Soc Trans 2023; 51:161-171. [PMID: 36744642 PMCID: PMC10518207 DOI: 10.1042/bst20220455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
How organisms learn and encode memory is an outstanding question in neuroscience research. Specifically, how memories are acquired and consolidated at the level of molecular and gene pathways remains unclear. In addition, memory is disrupted in a wide variety of neurological disorders; therefore, discovering molecular regulators of memory may reveal therapeutic targets for these disorders. C. elegans are an excellent model to uncover molecular and genetic regulators of memory. Indeed, the nematode's invariant neuronal lineage, fully mapped genome, and conserved associative behaviors have allowed the development of a breadth of genetic and genomic tools to examine learning and memory. In this mini-review, we discuss novel and exciting genetic and genomic techniques used to examine molecular and genetic underpinnings of memory from the level of the whole-worm to tissue-specific and cell-type specific approaches with high spatiotemporal resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie L. Brandel-Ankrapp
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
- Center for Precision Environmental Health, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
| | - Rachel N. Arey
- Center for Precision Environmental Health, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, U.S.A
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8
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Bhat US, Shahi N, Surendran S, Babu K. Neuropeptides and Behaviors: How Small Peptides Regulate Nervous System Function and Behavioral Outputs. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:786471. [PMID: 34924955 PMCID: PMC8674661 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.786471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the reasons that most multicellular animals survive and thrive is because of the adaptable and plastic nature of their nervous systems. For an organism to survive, it is essential for the animal to respond and adapt to environmental changes. This is achieved by sensing external cues and translating them into behaviors through changes in synaptic activity. The nervous system plays a crucial role in constantly evaluating environmental cues and allowing for behavioral plasticity in the organism. Multiple neurotransmitters and neuropeptides have been implicated as key players for integrating sensory information to produce the desired output. Because of its simple nervous system and well-established neuronal connectome, C. elegans acts as an excellent model to understand the mechanisms underlying behavioral plasticity. Here, we critically review how neuropeptides modulate a wide range of behaviors by allowing for changes in neuronal and synaptic signaling. This review will have a specific focus on feeding, mating, sleep, addiction, learning and locomotory behaviors in C. elegans. With a view to understand evolutionary relationships, we explore the functions and associated pathophysiology of C. elegans neuropeptides that are conserved across different phyla. Further, we discuss the mechanisms of neuropeptidergic signaling and how these signals are regulated in different behaviors. Finally, we attempt to provide insight into developing potential therapeutics for neuropeptide-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umer Saleem Bhat
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Mohali, India
| | - Navneet Shahi
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - Siju Surendran
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - Kavita Babu
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
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9
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Ramachandran S, Banerjee N, Bhattacharya R, Lemons ML, Florman J, Lambert CM, Touroutine D, Alexander K, Schoofs L, Alkema MJ, Beets I, Francis MM. A conserved neuropeptide system links head and body motor circuits to enable adaptive behavior. eLife 2021; 10:71747. [PMID: 34766905 PMCID: PMC8626090 DOI: 10.7554/elife.71747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuromodulators promote adaptive behaviors that are often complex and involve concerted activity changes across circuits that are often not physically connected. It is not well understood how neuromodulatory systems accomplish these tasks. Here, we show that the Caenorhabditis elegans NLP-12 neuropeptide system shapes responses to food availability by modulating the activity of head and body wall motor neurons through alternate G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) targets, CKR-1 and CKR-2. We show ckr-2 deletion reduces body bend depth during movement under basal conditions. We demonstrate CKR-1 is a functional NLP-12 receptor and define its expression in the nervous system. In contrast to basal locomotion, biased CKR-1 GPCR stimulation of head motor neurons promotes turning during local searching. Deletion of ckr-1 reduces head neuron activity and diminishes turning while specific ckr-1 overexpression or head neuron activation promote turning. Thus, our studies suggest locomotor responses to changing food availability are regulated through conditional NLP-12 stimulation of head or body wall motor circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shankar Ramachandran
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, United States
| | - Navonil Banerjee
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, United States
| | - Raja Bhattacharya
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, United States
| | - Michele L Lemons
- Department of Biological and Physical Sciences, Assumption University, Worcester, United States
| | - Jeremy Florman
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, United States
| | - Christopher M Lambert
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, United States
| | - Denis Touroutine
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, United States
| | - Kellianne Alexander
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, United States
| | - Liliane Schoofs
- Department of Biology, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mark J Alkema
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, United States
| | - Isabel Beets
- Department of Biology, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
| | - Michael M Francis
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, United States
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10
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Rahmani A, Chew YL. Investigating the molecular mechanisms of learning and memory using Caenorhabditis elegans. J Neurochem 2021; 159:417-451. [PMID: 34528252 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Learning is an essential biological process for survival since it facilitates behavioural plasticity in response to environmental changes. This process is mediated by a wide variety of genes, mostly expressed in the nervous system. Many studies have extensively explored the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying learning and memory. This review will focus on the advances gained through the study of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. C. elegans provides an excellent system to study learning because of its genetic tractability, in addition to its invariant, compact nervous system (~300 neurons) that is well-characterised at the structural level. Importantly, despite its compact nature, the nematode nervous system possesses a high level of conservation with mammalian systems. These features allow the study of genes within specific sensory-, inter- and motor neurons, facilitating the interrogation of signalling pathways that mediate learning via defined neural circuits. This review will detail how learning and memory can be studied in C. elegans through behavioural paradigms that target distinct sensory modalities. We will also summarise recent studies describing mechanisms through which key molecular and cellular pathways are proposed to affect associative and non-associative forms of learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aelon Rahmani
- Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Yee Lian Chew
- Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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11
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Reilly DK, McGlame EJ, Vandewyer E, Robidoux AN, Muirhead CS, Northcott HT, Joyce W, Alkema MJ, Gegear RJ, Beets I, Srinivasan J. Distinct neuropeptide-receptor modules regulate a sex-specific behavioral response to a pheromone. Commun Biol 2021; 4:1018. [PMID: 34465863 PMCID: PMC8408276 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02547-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Dioecious species are a hallmark of the animal kingdom, with opposing sexes responding differently to identical sensory cues. Here, we study the response of C. elegans to the small-molecule pheromone, ascr#8, which elicits opposing behavioral valences in each sex. We identify a novel neuropeptide-neuropeptide receptor (NP/NPR) module that is active in males, but not in hermaphrodites. Using a novel paradigm of neuropeptide rescue that we established, we leverage bacterial expression of individual peptides to rescue the sex-specific response to ascr#8. Concurrent biochemical studies confirmed individual FLP-3 peptides differentially activate two divergent receptors, NPR-10 and FRPR-16. Interestingly, the two of the peptides that rescued behavior in our feeding paradigm are related through a conserved threonine, suggesting that a specific NP/NPR combination sets a male state, driving the correct behavioral valence of the ascr#8 response. Receptor expression within pre-motor neurons reveals novel coordination of male-specific and core locomotory circuitries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas K. Reilly
- grid.268323.e0000 0001 1957 0327Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA USA ,grid.429997.80000 0004 1936 7531Present Address: Tufts University, Medford, MA USA
| | - Emily J. McGlame
- grid.268323.e0000 0001 1957 0327Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA USA ,Present Address: AbbVie Foundational Neuroscience Center, Cambridge, MA USA
| | - Elke Vandewyer
- grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Neural Signaling and Circuit Plasticity Group, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Annalise N. Robidoux
- grid.268323.e0000 0001 1957 0327Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA USA
| | - Caroline S. Muirhead
- grid.268323.e0000 0001 1957 0327Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA USA
| | - Haylea T. Northcott
- grid.268323.e0000 0001 1957 0327Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA USA ,grid.423532.10000 0004 0516 8515Present Address: Optum, Hartford, CT USA
| | - William Joyce
- grid.168645.80000 0001 0742 0364Neurobiology Department, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA USA
| | - Mark J. Alkema
- grid.168645.80000 0001 0742 0364Neurobiology Department, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA USA
| | - Robert J. Gegear
- grid.266686.a0000000102217463Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, Dartmouth, MA USA
| | - Isabel Beets
- grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Neural Signaling and Circuit Plasticity Group, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jagan Srinivasan
- grid.268323.e0000 0001 1957 0327Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA USA
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12
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Abstract
Following the spectacular success of molecular genetics in deciphering the genetic code in the 1960s, several of its leading practitioners felt sufficiently emboldened to use their newly acquired skills to move on and study that most enigmatic of biological organs - the brain. Sydney Brenner's approach was to focus on Caenorhabditis elegans, a nematode that is genetically tractable, has a nervous system that generates a rich repertoire of behaviours yet is small enough to allow anatomical reconstructions with ultrastructural precision. Through force of personality and some inspired pioneering studies, Brenner managed to ignite a bonfire of enthusiasm for this organism, which has resulted in its nervous system becoming the best understood of that in any organism. Initially, many were skeptical that this rather strange structure with just a few hundred neurons would yield insights that were relevant to vertebrate nervous systems. However, fifty years on we know that the basic repertoire of molecular components of worm and human nervous systems are remarkably similar. Furthermore, worms have a similar diversity of these components rather than a primitive sub-set. It appears that the fundamental difference in a vertebrate nervous system is a huge expansion of the neural units that comprise a basic brain such as that exemplified in C. elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
- John White
- Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
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13
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Thiel D, Guerra LAY, Franz-Wachtel M, Hejnol A, Jékely G. Nemertean, brachiopod and phoronid neuropeptidomics reveals ancestral spiralian signalling systems. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 38:4847-4866. [PMID: 34272863 PMCID: PMC8557429 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msab211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptides are diverse signaling molecules in animals commonly acting through G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Neuropeptides and their receptors underwent extensive diversification in bilaterians and the relationships of many peptide–receptor systems have been clarified. However, we lack a detailed picture of neuropeptide evolution in lophotrochozoans as in-depth studies only exist for mollusks and annelids. Here, we analyze peptidergic systems in Nemertea, Brachiopoda, and Phoronida. We screened transcriptomes from 13 nemertean, 6 brachiopod, and 4 phoronid species for proneuropeptides and neuropeptide GPCRs. With mass spectrometry from the nemertean Lineus longissimus, we validated several predicted peptides and identified novel ones. Molecular phylogeny combined with peptide-sequence and gene-structure comparisons allowed us to comprehensively map spiralian neuropeptide evolution. We found most mollusk and annelid peptidergic systems also in nemerteans, brachiopods, and phoronids. We uncovered previously hidden relationships including the orthologies of spiralian CCWamides to arthropod agatoxin-like peptides and of mollusk APGWamides to RGWamides from annelids, with ortholog systems in nemerteans, brachiopods, and phoronids. We found that pleurin neuropeptides previously only found in mollusks are also present in nemerteans and brachiopods. We also identified cases of gene family duplications and losses. These include a protostome-specific expansion of RFamide/Wamide signaling, a spiralian expansion of GnRH-related peptides, and duplications of vasopressin/oxytocin before the divergence of brachiopods, phoronids, and nemerteans. This analysis expands our knowledge of peptidergic signaling in spiralians and other protostomes. Our annotated data set of nearly 1,300 proneuropeptide sequences and 600 GPCRs presents a useful resource for further studies of neuropeptide signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Thiel
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, UK.,Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | | | - Mirita Franz-Wachtel
- Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Interfaculty Institute for Cell Biology, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Hejnol
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Bergen, 5006, Norway
| | - Gáspár Jékely
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, UK
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14
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Makino M, Ulzii E, Shirasaki R, Kim J, You YJ. Regulation of Satiety Quiescence by Neuropeptide Signaling in Caenorhabditis elegans. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:678590. [PMID: 34335159 PMCID: PMC8319666 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.678590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep and metabolism are interconnected homeostatic states; the sleep cycle can be entrained by the feeding cycle, and perturbation of the sleep often results in dysregulation in metabolism. However, the neuro-molecular mechanism by which metabolism regulates sleep is not fully understood. We investigated how metabolism and feeding regulate sleep using satiety quiescence behavior as a readout in Caenorhabditis elegans, which shares certain key aspects of postprandial sleep in mammals. From an RNA interference-based screen of two neuropeptide families, RFamide-related peptides (FLPs) and insulin-like peptides (INSs), we identified flp-11, known to regulate other types of sleep-like behaviors in C. elegans, as a gene that plays the most significant role in satiety quiescence. A mutation in flp-11 significantly reduces quiescence, whereas over-expression of the gene enhances it. A genetic analysis shows that FLP-11 acts upstream of the cGMP signaling but downstream of the TGFβ pathway, suggesting that TGFβ released from a pair of head sensory neurons (ASI) activates FLP-11 in an interneuron (RIS). Then, cGMP signaling acting in downstream of RIS neurons induces satiety quiescence. Among the 28 INSs genes screened, ins-1, known to play a significant role in starvation-associated behavior working in AIA is inhibitory to satiety quiescence. Our study suggests that specific combinations of neuropeptides are released, and their signals are integrated in order for an animal to gauge its metabolic state and to control satiety quiescence, a feeding-induced sleep-like state in C. elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Makino
- Neuroscience Institute, Department of Biology, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Japan
| | - Enkhjin Ulzii
- Neuroscience Institute, Department of Biology, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Japan
| | - Riku Shirasaki
- Neuroscience Institute, Department of Biology, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Japan
| | - Jeongho Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Inha University, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Young-Jai You
- Neuroscience Institute, Department of Biology, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Japan.,Center for Hypothalamic Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
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15
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Van Damme S, De Fruyt N, Watteyne J, Kenis S, Peymen K, Schoofs L, Beets I. Neuromodulatory pathways in learning and memory: Lessons from invertebrates. J Neuroendocrinol 2021; 33:e12911. [PMID: 33350018 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In an ever-changing environment, animals have to continuously adapt their behaviour. The ability to learn from experience is crucial for animals to increase their chances of survival. It is therefore not surprising that learning and memory evolved early in evolution and are mediated by conserved molecular mechanisms. A broad range of neuromodulators, in particular monoamines and neuropeptides, have been found to influence learning and memory, although our knowledge on their modulatory functions in learning circuits remains fragmentary. Many neuromodulatory systems are evolutionarily ancient and well-conserved between vertebrates and invertebrates. Here, we highlight general principles and mechanistic insights concerning the actions of monoamines and neuropeptides in learning circuits that have emerged from invertebrate studies. Diverse neuromodulators have been shown to influence learning and memory in invertebrates, which can have divergent or convergent actions at different spatiotemporal scales. In addition, neuromodulators can regulate learning dependent on internal and external states, such as food and social context. The strong conservation of neuromodulatory systems, the extensive toolkit and the compact learning circuits in invertebrate models make these powerful systems to further deepen our understanding of neuromodulatory pathways involved in learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Van Damme
- Neural Signaling and Circuit Plasticity Group, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nathan De Fruyt
- Neural Signaling and Circuit Plasticity Group, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jan Watteyne
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Group, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Signe Kenis
- Neural Signaling and Circuit Plasticity Group, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katleen Peymen
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Group, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Liliane Schoofs
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Group, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Isabel Beets
- Neural Signaling and Circuit Plasticity Group, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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16
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De Fruyt N, Yu AJ, Rankin CH, Beets I, Chew YL. The role of neuropeptides in learning: Insights from C. elegans. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2020; 125:105801. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2020.105801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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17
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Fadda M, De Fruyt N, Borghgraef C, Watteyne J, Peymen K, Vandewyer E, Naranjo Galindo FJ, Kieswetter A, Mirabeau O, Chew YL, Beets I, Schoofs L. NPY/NPF-Related Neuropeptide FLP-34 Signals from Serotonergic Neurons to Modulate Aversive Olfactory Learning in Caenorhabditis elegans. J Neurosci 2020; 40:6018-6034. [PMID: 32576621 PMCID: PMC7392509 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2674-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Aversive learning is fundamental for animals to increase chances of survival. In addition to classical neurotransmitters, neuropeptides have emerged to modulate such complex behaviors. Among them, neuropeptide Y (NPY) is well known to promote aversive memory acquisition in mammals. Here we identify an NPY/neuropeptide F (NPF)-related neuropeptide system in Caenorhabditis elegans and show that this FLP-34/NPR-11 system is required for learning negative associations, a process that is reminiscent of NPY signaling in mammals. The Caenorhabditis elegans NPY/NPF ortholog FLP-34 displays conserved structural hallmarks of bilaterian-wide NPY/NPF neuropeptides. We show that it is required for aversive olfactory learning after pairing diacetyl with the absence of food, but not for appetitive olfactory learning in response to butanone. To mediate diacetyl learning and thus integrate the aversive food context with the diacetyl odor, FLP-34 is released from serotonergic neurons and signals through its evolutionarily conserved NPY/NPF GPCR, NPR-11, in downstream AIA interneurons. NPR-11 activation in the AIA integration center results in avoidance of a previously attractive stimulus. This study opens perspectives for a deeper understanding of stress conditions in which aversive learning results in excessive avoidance.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Aversive learning evolved early in evolution to promote avoidance of dangerous and stressful situations. In addition to classical neurotransmitters, neuropeptides are emerging as modulators of complex behaviors, including learning and memory. Here, we identified the evolutionary ortholog of neuropeptide Y/neuropeptide F in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and we discovered that it is required for olfactory aversive learning. In addition, we elucidated the neural circuit underlying this avoidance behavior, and we discovered a novel coordinated action of Caenorhabditis elegans neuropeptide Y/neuropeptide F and serotonin that could aid in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying stress disorders in which excessive avoidance results in maladaptive behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Fadda
- Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | | | | | - Jan Watteyne
- Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | - Olivier Mirabeau
- Genetics and Biology of Cancers Unit, Institut Curie, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U830, Paris Sciences et Lettres Research University, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Yee Lian Chew
- Illawarra Health & Medical Research Institute School of Chemistry & Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, 2522 New South Wales, Australia
| | - Isabel Beets
- Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
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18
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Williams EA. Function and Distribution of the Wamide Neuropeptide Superfamily in Metazoans. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:344. [PMID: 32547494 PMCID: PMC7270403 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.00344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The Wamide neuropeptide superfamily is of interest due to its distinctive functions in regulating life cycle transitions, metamorphic hormone signaling, and several aspects of digestive system function, from gut muscle contraction to satiety and fat storage. Due to variation among researchers in naming conventions, a global view of Wamide signaling in animals in terms of conservation or diversification of function is currently lacking. Here, I summarize the phylogenetic distribution of Wamide neuropeptides based on current data and describe recent findings in the areas of Wamide receptors and biological functions. Common trends that emerge across Cnidarians and protostomes are the presence of multiple Wamide receptors within a single organism, and the fact that Wamide signaling likely functions across an extensive variety of biological systems, including visual, circadian, and reproductive systems. Important areas of focus for future research are the further identification of Wamide-receptor pairs, confirmation of the phylogenetic distribution of Wamides through largescale sequencing and mass spectrometry, and assignment of different functions to specific subsets of Wamide-expressing neurons. More extensive study of Wamide signaling throughout larval development in a greater number of phyla is also important in order to understand the role of Wamides in hormonal regulation. Defining the evolution and function of neuropeptide signaling in animal nervous systems will benefit from an increased understanding of Wamide function and signaling mechanisms in a wider variety of organisms, beyond the traditional model systems.
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Hayakawa E, Watanabe H, Menschaert G, Holstein TW, Baggerman G, Schoofs L. A combined strategy of neuropeptide prediction and tandem mass spectrometry identifies evolutionarily conserved ancient neuropeptides in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215185. [PMID: 31545805 PMCID: PMC6756747 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptides are a class of bioactive peptides shown to be involved in various physiological processes, including metabolism, development, and reproduction. Although neuropeptide candidates have been predicted from genomic and transcriptomic data, comprehensive characterization of neuropeptide repertoires remains a challenge owing to their small size and variable sequences. De novo prediction of neuropeptides from genome or transcriptome data is difficult and usually only efficient for those peptides that have identified orthologs in other animal species. Recent peptidomics technology has enabled systematic structural identification of neuropeptides by using the combination of liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. However, reliable identification of naturally occurring peptides using a conventional tandem mass spectrometry approach, scanning spectra against a protein database, remains difficult because a large search space must be scanned due to the absence of a cleavage enzyme specification. We developed a pipeline consisting of in silico prediction of candidate neuropeptides followed by peptide-spectrum matching. This approach enables highly sensitive and reliable neuropeptide identification, as the search space for peptide-spectrum matching is highly reduced. Nematostella vectensis is a basal eumetazoan with one of the most ancient nervous systems. We scanned the Nematostella protein database for sequences displaying structural hallmarks typical of eumetazoan neuropeptide precursors, including amino- and carboxyterminal motifs and associated modifications. Peptide-spectrum matching was performed against a dataset of peptides that are cleaved in silico from these putative peptide precursors. The dozens of newly identified neuropeptides display structural similarities to bilaterian neuropeptides including tachykinin, myoinhibitory peptide, and neuromedin-U/pyrokinin, suggesting these neuropeptides occurred in the eumetazoan ancestor of all animal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eisuke Hayakawa
- Research Group of Functional Genomics and Proteomics, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Evolutionary Neurobiology Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science & Technology, Okinawa, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Hiroshi Watanabe
- Evolutionary Neurobiology Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science & Technology, Okinawa, Japan
- Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gerben Menschaert
- Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Laboratory for Bioinformatics and Computational Genomics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Thomas W. Holstein
- Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Geert Baggerman
- CFP/Ceproma, University Antwerpen, Antwerpen, Belgium
- VITO, Applied Bio & molecular Systems (ABS), Mol, Belgium
| | - Liliane Schoofs
- Research Group of Functional Genomics and Proteomics, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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