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La Rosa C, Sharma P, Junaid Dar M, Jin Y, Qin L, Roy A, Kendall A, Wu M, Lin Z, Uchenik D, Li J, Basu S, Moitra S, Zhang K, Zhuo Wang M, Werbovetz KA. N-substituted-4-(pyridin-4-ylalkyl)piperazine-1-carboxamides and related compounds as Leishmania CYP51 and CYP5122A1 inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2024; 113:117907. [PMID: 39288704 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2024.117907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Revised: 08/29/2024] [Accepted: 09/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/19/2024]
Abstract
CYP5122A1, an enzyme involved in sterol biosynthesis in Leishmania, was recently characterized as a sterol C4-methyl oxidase. Screening of a library of compounds against CYP5122A1 and CYP51 from Leishmania resulted in the identification of two structurally related classes of inhibitors of these enzymes. Analogs of screening hit N-(3,5-dimethylphenyl)-4-(pyridin-4-ylmethyl)piperazine-1-carboxamide (4a) were generally strong inhibitors of CYP51 but were less potent against CYP5122A1 and typically displayed weak inhibition of L. donovani promastigote growth. Analogs of screening hit N-(4-(benzyloxy)phenyl)-4-(2-(pyridin-4-yl)ethyl)piperazine-1-carboxamide (18a) were stronger inhibitors of both CYP5122A1 and L. donovani promastigote proliferation but also remained selective for inhibition of CYP51. Two compounds in this series, N-(4-((3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzyl)oxy)phenyl)-4-(2-(pyridin-4-yl)ethyl)piperazine-1-carboxamide (18e) and N-(4-((3,5-di-tert-butylbenzyl)oxy)phenyl)-4-(2-(pyridin-4-yl)ethyl)piperazine-1-carboxamide (18i) showed modest selectivity for inhibiting L. donovani promastigote proliferation compared to J774 macrophages and were effective against intracellular L. donovani with EC50 values in the low micromolar range. Replacement of the 4-pyridyl ring present in 18e with imidazole resulted in a compound (4-(2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)ethyl)-N-(4-((3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzyl)oxy)phenyl)piperazine-1-carboxamide, 18p) with approximately fourfold selectivity for CYP5122A1 over CYP51 that inhibited both enzymes with IC50 values ≤ 1 µM, although selective potency against L. donovani promastigotes was lost. Compound 18p also inhibited the proliferation of L. major promastigotes and caused the accumulation of 4-methylated sterols in L. major membranes, indicating that this compound blocks sterol demethylation at the 4-position in Leishmania parasites. The molecules described here may therefore be useful for the future identification of dual inhibitors of CYP51 and CYP5122A1 as potential antileishmanial drug candidates and as probes to shed further light on sterol biosynthesis in Leishmania and related parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris La Rosa
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Pankaj Sharma
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - M Junaid Dar
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Yiru Jin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Lingli Qin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Anuradha Roy
- High Throughput Screening Laboratory, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Allie Kendall
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Meng Wu
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center-Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital and Richard J. Solove Research Institute, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Zhihong Lin
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center-Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital and Richard J. Solove Research Institute, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Dmitriy Uchenik
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Junan Li
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Somrita Basu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Samrat Moitra
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Kai Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Michael Zhuo Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Karl A Werbovetz
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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Mustière R, Dassonville-Klimpt A, Sonnet P. Aminopyridines in the development of drug candidates against protozoan neglected tropical diseases. Future Med Chem 2024; 16:1357-1373. [PMID: 39109436 PMCID: PMC11318709 DOI: 10.1080/17568919.2024.2359361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) pose a major threat in tropical zones for impoverished populations. Difficulty of access, adverse effects or low efficacy limit the use of current therapeutic options. Therefore, development of new drugs against NTDs is a necessity. Compounds containing an aminopyridine (AP) moiety are of great interest for the design of new anti-NTD drugs due to their intrinsic properties compared with their closest chemical structures. Currently, over 40 compounds with an AP moiety are on the market, but none is used against NTDs despite active research on APs. The aim of this review is to present the medicinal chemistry work carried out with these scaffolds, against protozoan NTDs: Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei or Leishmania spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Mustière
- Université de Picardie-Jules-Verne, AGIR – Agents infectieux, RéSistance et chimiothérapie, UR 4294, UFR de pharmacie, 1, Rue des Louvels, F-80037 Amiens cedex 1, France
| | - Alexandra Dassonville-Klimpt
- Université de Picardie-Jules-Verne, AGIR – Agents infectieux, RéSistance et chimiothérapie, UR 4294, UFR de pharmacie, 1, Rue des Louvels, F-80037 Amiens cedex 1, France
| | - Pascal Sonnet
- Université de Picardie-Jules-Verne, AGIR – Agents infectieux, RéSistance et chimiothérapie, UR 4294, UFR de pharmacie, 1, Rue des Louvels, F-80037 Amiens cedex 1, France
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3
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Examination of multiple Trypanosoma cruzi targets in a new drug discovery approach for Chagas disease. Bioorg Med Chem 2022; 58:116577. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Recent Progress in the Development of Indole-Based Compounds Active against Malaria, Trypanosomiasis and Leishmaniasis. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27010319. [PMID: 35011552 PMCID: PMC8746838 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27010319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Human protozoan diseases represent a serious health problem worldwide, affecting mainly people in social and economic vulnerability. These diseases have attracted little investment in drug discovery, which is reflected in the limited available therapeutic arsenal. Authorized drugs present problems such as low efficacy in some stages of the disease or toxicity, which result in undesirable side effects and treatment abandonment. Moreover, the emergence of drug-resistant parasite strains makes necessary an even greater effort to develop safe and effective antiparasitic agents. Among the chemotypes investigated for parasitic diseases, the indole nucleus has emerged as a privileged molecular scaffold for the generation of new drug candidates. In this review, the authors provide an overview of the indole-based compounds developed against important parasitic diseases, namely malaria, trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis, by focusing on the design, optimization and synthesis of the most relevant synthetic indole scaffolds recently reported.
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Silva TB, Ji KNK, Petzold Pauli F, Galvão RMS, Faria AFM, Bello ML, Resende JALC, Campos VR, Forezi LDSM, da Silva FDC, Faria RX, Ferreira VF. Synthesis and in vitro and in silico studies of 1H- and 2H-1,2,3-triazoles as antichagasic agents. Bioorg Chem 2021; 116:105250. [PMID: 34469833 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2021.105250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
1,2,3-triazole heterocycles stand out in medicinal chemistry for having great structural diversity and bioactivities. In this study, two series of triazoles were synthesized. One was obtained by the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction between ethyl cyanoacetate and several phenyl azides forming 1H-1,2,3-triazoles and the other by rearrangement of Dimroth forming and 2H-1,2,3-triazoles. Both series were shown to be active against the epimastigote form of Trypanosoma cruzi. The 1,2,3-triazoles 16d (S.I. between 100 and 200), 17d and 16f (S.I. > 200) were the most active compounds and capable of breaking the plasma membrane of trypomastigotes acting on CYP51 and inhibiting ergosterol synthesis. Candidate 16d exhibited the best and most favorable profile when interacting with CYP51.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thais B Silva
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Departamento de Tecnologia Farmacêutica, Faculdade de Farmácia, Santa Rosa, CEP 24241-002 Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Kathya N K Ji
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Departamento de Tecnologia Farmacêutica, Faculdade de Farmácia, Santa Rosa, CEP 24241-002 Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Petzold Pauli
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Instituto de Química, Departamento de Química Orgânica, Campus do Valonguinho, CEP 24020-150 Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Raíssa M S Galvão
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Laboratório de Toxoplasmose e outras Protozooses, Pavilhão Carlos Chagas, Manguinhos, CEP 21045-900 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil; Universidade Federal Fluminense, Instituto de Biologia, Pós-graduação de Ciências e Biotecnologia, Campus do Valonguinho, CEP 24020-150 Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Ana F M Faria
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Faculdade de Farmácia, Laboratório de Planejamento Farmacêutico e Simulação Computacional, CEP 21941-599 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Murilo L Bello
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Laboratório de Toxoplasmose e outras Protozooses, Pavilhão Carlos Chagas, Manguinhos, CEP 21045-900 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Jackson A L C Resende
- Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Instituto de Ciências Exatas e da Terra, Campus Universitário do Araguaia, CEP 78698-000 Pontal do Araguaia, MT, Brazil
| | - Vinicius R Campos
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Instituto de Química, Departamento de Química Orgânica, Campus do Valonguinho, CEP 24020-150 Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Luana da S M Forezi
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Instituto de Química, Departamento de Química Orgânica, Campus do Valonguinho, CEP 24020-150 Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Fernando de C da Silva
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Instituto de Química, Departamento de Química Orgânica, Campus do Valonguinho, CEP 24020-150 Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Robson X Faria
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Laboratório de Toxoplasmose e outras Protozooses, Pavilhão Carlos Chagas, Manguinhos, CEP 21045-900 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Faculdade de Farmácia, Laboratório de Planejamento Farmacêutico e Simulação Computacional, CEP 21941-599 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Vitor F Ferreira
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Departamento de Tecnologia Farmacêutica, Faculdade de Farmácia, Santa Rosa, CEP 24241-002 Niterói, RJ, Brazil.
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6
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Díaz-Storani L, Clary AA, Moreno DM, Ballari MS, Porta EOJ, Bracca ABJ, Johnston JB, Labadie GR. Synthesis and interaction of terminal unsaturated chemical probes with Mycobacterium tuberculosis CYP124A1. Bioorg Med Chem 2021; 44:116304. [PMID: 34289431 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A series of C15-C20 isoprenyl derivatives bearing terminal alkenyl and alkynyl groups were synthesized as possible substrates of the methyl-branched lipid ω-hydroxylase CYP124A1 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The interactions of each compound with the enzyme active site were characterized using UV-vis spectroscopy. We found that C10 and C15 analogs bind with similar affinity to the corresponding parent C10 and C15 substrates geraniol and farnesol, respectively. Three analogs (C10-ω-ene, C10-ω-yne, C15-ω-yne) interact with the proximal side of the heme iron by coordinating to the oxygen atom of the ferric heme, as judged by the appearance of typical Type-IA binding spectra. On the other hand, the C15-ω-ene analog interacts with the ferric heme by displacing the bound water that generates a typical Type I binding spectrum. We were unable to detect P450-mediated oxidation of these probes following extended incubations with CYP124A1 in our reconstituted assay system, whereas a control reaction containing farnesol was converted to ω-hydroxy farnesol under the same conditions. To understand the lack of detectable oxidation, we explored the possibility that the analogs were acting as mechanism-based inhibitors, but we were unable to detect time-dependent loss of enzymatic activity. In order to gain insight into the lack of detectable turnover or time-dependent inhibition, we examined the interaction of each compound with the CYP124A1 active site using molecular docking simulations. The docking studies revealed a binding mode where the terminal unsaturated functional groups were sequestered within the methyl-binding pocket, rather than positioned close to the heme iron for oxidation. These results aid in the design of specific inhibitors of Mtb-CYP124A1, an interesting enzyme that is implicated in the oxidation of methyl-branched lipids, including cholesterol, within a deadly human pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luz Díaz-Storani
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR-CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, S2002LRK Rosario, Argentina
| | - Anaelle A Clary
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158-2517, United States
| | - Diego M Moreno
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR-CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, S2002LRK Rosario, Argentina
| | - María Sol Ballari
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR-CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, S2002LRK Rosario, Argentina
| | - Exequiel O J Porta
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR-CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, S2002LRK Rosario, Argentina
| | - Andrea B J Bracca
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR-CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, S2002LRK Rosario, Argentina
| | - Jonathan B Johnston
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158-2517, United States.
| | - Guillermo R Labadie
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR-CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, S2002LRK Rosario, Argentina.
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Monk BC, Keniya MV. Roles for Structural Biology in the Discovery of Drugs and Agrochemicals Targeting Sterol 14α-Demethylases. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:67. [PMID: 33498194 PMCID: PMC7908997 DOI: 10.3390/jof7020067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Antifungal drugs and antifungal agrochemicals have significant limitations. These include several unintended consequences of their use including the growing importance of intrinsic and acquired resistance. These problems underpin an increasingly urgent need to improve the existing classes of antifungals and to discover novel antifungals. Structural insights into drug targets and their complexes with both substrates and inhibitory ligands increase opportunity for the discovery of more effective antifungals. Implementation of this promise, which requires multiple skill sets, is beginning to yield candidates from discovery programs that could more quickly find their place in the clinic. This review will describe how structural biology is providing information for the improvement and discovery of inhibitors targeting the essential fungal enzyme sterol 14α-demethylase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian C. Monk
- Department of Oral Sciences, Sir John Walsh Research Institute, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand;
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8
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Multiple drug binding modes in Mycobacterium tuberculosis CYP51B1. J Inorg Biochem 2020; 205:110994. [PMID: 31982812 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2020.110994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) genome encodes 20 different cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs), many of which serve essential biosynthetic roles. CYP51B1, the Mtb version of eukaryotic sterol demethylase, remains a potential therapeutic target. The binding of three drug fragments containing nitrogen heterocycles to CYP51B1 is studied here by continuous wave (CW) and pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) techniques to determine how each drug fragment binds to the heme active-site. All three drug fragments form a mixture of complexes, some of which retain the axial water ligand from the resting state. Hyperfine sublevel correlation spectroscopy (HYSCORE) and electron-nuclear double resonance spectroscopy (ENDOR) observe protons of the axial water and on the drug fragments that reveal drug binding modes. Binding in CYP51B1 is complicated by the presence of multiple binding modes that coexist in the same solution. These results aid our understanding of CYP-inhibitor interactions and will help guide future inhibitor design.
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Ambhore AN, Kamble SS, Kadam SN, Kamble RD, Hebade MJ, Hese SV, Gaikwad MV, Meshram RJ, Gacche RN, Dawane BS. Design, synthesis and in silico study of pyridine based 1,3,4-oxadiazole embedded hydrazinecarbothioamide derivatives as potent anti-tubercular agent. Comput Biol Chem 2019; 80:54-65. [PMID: 30901601 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Revised: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Development of novel, safe and effective drug candidates combating the emerging drug resistance has remained a major focus in the mainstream of anti-tuberculosis research. Here, we inspired to design and synthesize series of new pyridin-4-yl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl-thio-ethylidene-hydrazinecarbothioamide derivatives as potential anti-tubercular agents. The anti-tubercular bioactive assay demonstrated that the synthesized compounds exhibit potent anti-tubercular activity (MIC = 3.9-7.81 μg/mL) in comparison with reference drugs Rifampicin and Isoniazid.We employed pharmacophore probing approach for the identification of CYP51 as a possible drug target for the synthesized compounds. To understand the preferable binding mode, the synthesized molecules were docked onto the active site of Sterol 14 α-demethylases (CYP51) target. From the binding free energy of the docking results it was revealed that the compounds were effective CYP51 inhibitors and acts as antitubercular agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajay N Ambhore
- School of Chemical Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded, MS, 431606, India
| | - Sonali S Kamble
- School of Life Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded, MS, 431606, India
| | - Shuddhodan N Kadam
- School of Chemical Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded, MS, 431606, India
| | - Rahul D Kamble
- School of Chemical Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded, MS, 431606, India
| | - Madhav J Hebade
- School of Chemical Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded, MS, 431606, India
| | - Shrikant V Hese
- School of Chemical Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded, MS, 431606, India
| | - Milind V Gaikwad
- School of Chemical Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded, MS, 431606, India
| | - Rohan J Meshram
- Bioinformatics Centre, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, MS, 411 007, India.
| | - Rajesh N Gacche
- Department of Biotechnology, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, MS, 411 007, India.
| | - Bhaskar S Dawane
- School of Chemical Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded, MS, 431606, India.
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10
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Ortega Ugalde S, Boot M, Commandeur JNM, Jennings P, Bitter W, Vos JC. Function, essentiality, and expression of cytochrome P450 enzymes and their cognate redox partners in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: are they drug targets? Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 103:3597-3614. [PMID: 30810776 PMCID: PMC6469627 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-09697-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This review covers the current knowledge of the cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs) of the human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and their endogenous redox partners, focusing on their biological function, expression, regulation, involvement in antibiotic resistance, and suitability for exploitation as antitubercular targets. The Mtb genome encodes twenty CYPs and nine associated redox partners required for CYP catalytic activity. Transposon insertion mutagenesis studies have established the (conditional) essentiality of several of these enzymes for in vitro growth and host infection. Biochemical characterization of a handful of Mtb CYPs has revealed that they have specific physiological functions in bacterial virulence and persistence in the host. Analysis of the transcriptional response of Mtb CYPs and redox partners to external insults and to first-line antibiotics used to treat tuberculosis showed a diverse expression landscape, suggesting for some enzymes a potential role in drug resistance. Combining the knowledge about the physiological roles and expression profiles indicates that, at least five Mtb CYPs, CYP121A1, CYP125A1, CYP139A1, CYP142A1, and CYP143A1, as well as two ferredoxins, FdxA and FdxC, can be considered promising novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Ortega Ugalde
- Division of Molecular Toxicology, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems (AIMMS), Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Maikel Boot
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jan N M Commandeur
- Division of Molecular Toxicology, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems (AIMMS), Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul Jennings
- Division of Molecular Toxicology, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems (AIMMS), Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- Section of Molecular Microbiology, AIMMS, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J Chris Vos
- Division of Molecular Toxicology, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems (AIMMS), Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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11
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Song J, Zhang S, Lu L. Fungal cytochrome P450 protein Cyp51: What we can learn from its evolution, regulons and Cyp51-based azole resistance. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2018.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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12
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3-pyridyl inhibitors with novel activity against Trypanosoma cruzi reveal in vitro profiles can aid prediction of putative cytochrome P450 inhibition. Sci Rep 2018; 8:4901. [PMID: 29559688 PMCID: PMC5861127 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22043-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Using high throughput, high-content imaging, a proprietary library was screened against intracellular Trypanosoma cruzi amastigotes to identify compounds with novel activity against the parasite. Five inhibitors were discovered, which did not clear all of the parasites from 3T3 host cells following 48 hours exposure, and were identified as putative T. cruzi cytochrome P450 (TcCYP51) inhibitors. TcCYP51 inhibitors are not favourable for the drug discovery pipeline for treatment of Chagas Disease infection due to clinical and pre-clinical failures. To determine if there were in vitro inhibitory characteristics of these compounds that could aid the prediction of TcCYP51 inhibition further profiling using imaging and fluorescence based assays was undertaken. It was determined that in vitro profiles, coupled with analysis of chemical structure, could support the early prediction of putative TcCYP51 activity and thus enable early de-prioritisation of these compounds from progression through the drug discovery pipeline.
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Calvet CM, Choi JY, Thomas D, Suzuki B, Hirata K, Lostracco-Johnson S, de Mesquita LB, Nogueira A, Meuser-Batista M, Silva TA, Siqueira-Neto JL, Roush WR, de Souza Pereira MC, McKerrow JH, Podust LM. 4-aminopyridyl-based lead compounds targeting CYP51 prevent spontaneous parasite relapse in a chronic model and improve cardiac pathology in an acute model of Trypanosoma cruzi infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0006132. [PMID: 29281643 PMCID: PMC5744913 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is the leading cause of heart failure in Latin America. The clinical treatment of Chagas disease is limited to two 60 year-old drugs, nifurtimox and benznidazole, that have variable efficacy against different strains of the parasite and may lead to severe side effects. CYP51 is an enzyme in the sterol biosynthesis pathway that has been exploited for the development of therapeutics for fungal and parasitic infections. In a target-based drug discovery program guided by x-ray crystallography, we identified the 4-aminopyridyl-based series of CYP51 inhibitors as being efficacious versus T.cruzi in vitro; two of the most potent leads, 9 and 12, have now been evaluated for toxicity and efficacy in mice. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Both acute and chronic animal models infected with wild type or transgenic T. cruzi strains were evaluated. There was no evidence of toxicity in the 28-day dosing study of uninfected animals, as judged by the monitoring of multiple serum and histological parameters. In two acute models of Chagas disease, 9 and 12 drastically reduced parasitemia, increased survival of mice, and prevented liver and heart injury. None of the compounds produced long term sterile cure. In the less severe acute model using the transgenic CL-Brenner strain of T.cruzi, parasitemia relapsed upon drug withdrawal. In the chronic model, parasitemia fell to a background level and, as evidenced by the bioluminescence detection of T. cruzi expressing the red-shifted luciferase marker, mice remained negative for 4 weeks after drug withdrawal. Two immunosuppression cycles with cyclophosphamide were required to re-activate the parasites. Although no sterile cure was achieved, the suppression of parasitemia in acutely infected mice resulted in drastically reduced inflammation in the heart. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The positive outcomes achieved in the absence of sterile cure suggest that the target product profile in anti-Chagasic drug discovery should be revised in favor of safe re-administration of the medication during the lifespan of a Chagas disease patient. A medication that reduces parasite burden may halt or slow progression of cardiomyopathy and therefore improve both life expectancy and quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Magalhaes Calvet
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- Cellular Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Jun Yong Choi
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida, United States of America
| | - Diane Thomas
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Brian Suzuki
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Ken Hirata
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Sharon Lostracco-Johnson
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Liliane Batista de Mesquita
- Cellular Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alanderson Nogueira
- Cellular Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Meuser-Batista
- Department of Pathologic Anatomy, Fernandes Figueira Institute (IFF), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Araujo Silva
- Cellular Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Jair Lage Siqueira-Neto
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - William R. Roush
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida, United States of America
| | | | - James H. McKerrow
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Larissa M. Podust
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
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14
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He CY, Fu J, Shou JW, Zhao ZX, Ren L, Wang Y, Jiang JD. In Vitro Study of the Metabolic Characteristics of Eight Isoquinoline Alkaloids from Natural Plants in Rat Gut Microbiota. Molecules 2017; 22:molecules22060932. [PMID: 28587219 PMCID: PMC6152661 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22060932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2017] [Revised: 05/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Gut microbiota is populated with an immense number of microorganisms, which can be regulated by dietary components and drugs to markedly affect the nutritional and health status of the host. Eight medicinal isoquinoline alkaloids from natural plants were cultured anaerobically with rat gut microbiota and an LC/MSn-IT-TOF technique was used to identify the resulting metabolites. Palmatine, tetrahydropalmatine, dauricine, and tetrandrine containing nitro-hexatomic isoquinoline rings could be easily transformed by the intestinal flora in vitro and a total of nine demethylated metabolites were detected. However, sinomenine, homoharringtonine, harringtonine, and galanthamine, which all contained benzazepine, could not undergo demethylation. Computer-assisted docking was used to analyze the binding between these compounds and sterol 14α-demethylase. The computational results demonstrated that hydrophobic interactions were the main driving force for binding, but the steric hindrance produced by the benzazepine structure resulted in a weak interaction between the hit compounds and the enzyme. This work illustrated that gut microbiota were important in the metabolism of isoquinoline alkaloids.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jia-Wen Shou
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences/Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Zhen-Xiong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences/Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Long Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences/Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Yan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences/Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Jian-Dong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences/Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China.
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15
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Ottilie S, Goldgof GM, Calvet CM, Jennings GK, LaMonte G, Schenken J, Vigil E, Kumar P, McCall LI, Lopes ESC, Gunawan F, Yang J, Suzuki Y, Siqueira-Neto JL, McKerrow JH, Amaro RE, Podust LM, Durrant JD, Winzeler EA. Rapid Chagas Disease Drug Target Discovery Using Directed Evolution in Drug-Sensitive Yeast. ACS Chem Biol 2017; 12:422-434. [PMID: 27977118 PMCID: PMC5649375 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.6b01037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in cell-based, high-throughput phenotypic screening have identified new chemical compounds that are active against eukaryotic pathogens. A challenge to their future development lies in identifying these compounds' molecular targets and binding modes. In particular, subsequent structure-based chemical optimization and target-based screening require a detailed understanding of the binding event. Here, we use directed evolution and whole-genome sequencing of a drug-sensitive S. cerevisiae strain to identify the yeast ortholog of TcCyp51, lanosterol-14-alpha-demethylase (TcCyp51), as the target of MMV001239, a benzamide compound with activity against Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease. We show that parasites treated with MMV0001239 phenocopy parasites treated with another TcCyp51 inhibitor, posaconazole, accumulating both lanosterol and eburicol. Direct drug-protein binding of MMV0001239 was confirmed through spectrophotometric binding assays and X-ray crystallography, revealing a binding site shared with other antitrypanosomal compounds that target Cyp51. These studies provide a new probe chemotype for TcCyp51 inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Ottilie
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Gregory M Goldgof
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Synthetic Biology and Bioenergy, J. Craig Venter Institute , La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Claudia Magalhaes Calvet
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Cellular Ultrastructure Laboratory, IOC, FIOCRUZ , Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 21045-360
| | - Gareth K Jennings
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Greg LaMonte
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Jake Schenken
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Edgar Vigil
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Prianka Kumar
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Laura-Isobel McCall
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Eduardo Soares Constantino Lopes
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Pharmacy, Federal University of Paraná , Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil 80210-170
| | - Felicia Gunawan
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Jennifer Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Yo Suzuki
- Department of Synthetic Biology and Bioenergy, J. Craig Venter Institute , La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Jair L Siqueira-Neto
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - James H McKerrow
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Rommie E Amaro
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Larissa M Podust
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Jacob D Durrant
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| | - Elizabeth A Winzeler
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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16
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Johnson EO, Wong LL. Partial fusion of a cytochrome P450 system by carboxy-terminal attachment of putidaredoxin reductase to P450cam (CYP101A1). Catal Sci Technol 2016; 6:7549-7560. [PMID: 28944003 PMCID: PMC5609660 DOI: 10.1039/c6cy01042c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes catalyze the insertion of oxygen into carbon-hydrogen bonds and have great potential for enzymatic synthesis. Application development of class I CYPs is hampered by their dependence on two redox partners (a ferredoxin and ferredoxin reductase), slowing catalysis compared to self-sufficient CYPs such as CYP102A1 (P450BM3). Previous attempts to address this have fused all three components in several permutations and geometries, with much reduced activity compared to the native system. We report here the new approach of fusing putidaredoxin reductase (PdR) to the carboxy-terminus of CYP101A1 (P450cam) via a linker peptide and reconstituting camphor hydroxylase activity with free putidaredoxin (Pdx). Initial purification of a P450cam-PdR fusion yielded 2.0% heme incorporation. Co-expression of E. coli ferrochelatase, lengthening the linker from 5 to 20 residues, and altering culture conditions for enzyme production furnished 85% heme content. Fusion co-expression with Pdx gave a functional system with comparable in vivo camphor oxidation activity as the native system. In vitro, the fused system's steady state NADH oxidation rate was two-fold faster than that of the native system. In contrast to the native system, NADH oxidation rates for the fusion enzyme showed non-hyperbolic dependence on Pdx concentration, suggesting a role for the PdR domain; these data were consistent with a kinetic model based on two-site binding of Pdx by P450cam-PdR and inactive dimer formation of the fusion. P450cam-PdR is the first example of a class I P450 fusion that exhibits significantly more favorable behavior than that of the native system.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luet-Lok Wong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, UK
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17
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Teixeira SF, de Azevedo RA, Silva AC, Braga RC, Jorge SD, Barbuto JAM, Andrade CH, Ferreira AK. Evaluation of cytotoxic effect of the combination of a pyridinyl carboxamide derivative and oxaliplatin on NCI-H1299 human non-small cell lung carcinoma cells. Biomed Pharmacother 2016; 84:1019-1028. [PMID: 27768927 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2016.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 09/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Even with all improvements in both diagnostic and therapeutic techniques, lung cancer remains as the most lethal and prevalent cancer in the world. Therefore, new therapeutic drugs and new strategies of drug combination are necessary to provide treatments that are more efficient. Currently, standard therapy regimen for lung cancer includes platinum drugs, such as cisplatin, oxaliplatin, and carboplatin. Besides of the better toxicity profile of oxaliplatin when compared with cisplatin, peripheral neuropathy remains as a limitation of oxaliplatin dose. This study presents LabMol-12, a new pyridinyl carboxamide derivative with antileishmanial and antichagasic activity, as a new hit for lung cancer treatment, which induces apoptosis dependent of caspases in NCI-H1299 lung cancer cells both in monolayer and 3D culture. Moreover, LabMol-12 allows a reduction of oxaliplatin dose when they are combined, thereby, it is a relevant strategy for reducing the side effects of oxaliplatin with the same response. Molecular modeling studies corroborated the biological findings and suggested that the combined therapy can provide a better therapeutically profile effects against NSCLC. All these findings support the fact that the combination of oxaliplatin and LabMol-12 is a promising drug combination for lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Fernandes Teixeira
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, Prof. Lineu Prestes Avenue, 1730 Sao Paulo - SP, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Alexandre de Azevedo
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, Prof. Lineu Prestes Avenue, 1730 Sao Paulo - SP, Brazil
| | - Arthur Carvalho Silva
- LabMol - Laboratory for Molecular Modeling and Drug Design, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goias, 240 Street, 74605-170, Goiania - GO, Brazil
| | - Rodolpho Campos Braga
- LabMol - Laboratory for Molecular Modeling and Drug Design, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goias, 240 Street, 74605-170, Goiania - GO, Brazil
| | - Salomão Dória Jorge
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, Prof. Lineu Prestes Avenue, 1730 Sao Paulo - SP, Brazil
| | - José Alexandre Marzagão Barbuto
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, Prof. Lineu Prestes Avenue, 1730 Sao Paulo - SP, Brazil
| | - Carolina Horta Andrade
- LabMol - Laboratory for Molecular Modeling and Drug Design, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goias, 240 Street, 74605-170, Goiania - GO, Brazil
| | - Adilson Kleber Ferreira
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, Prof. Lineu Prestes Avenue, 1730 Sao Paulo - SP, Brazil.
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18
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Brengel C, Thomann A, Schifrin A, Eberhard J, Hartmann RW. Discovery and Biophysical Evaluation of First Low Nanomolar Hits Targeting CYP125 ofM. tuberculosis. ChemMedChem 2016; 11:2385-2391. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201600361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Brengel
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland; Department of Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Andreas Thomann
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland; Department of Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Alexander Schifrin
- Department of Biochemistry; Saarland University; Campus B2.2 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Jens Eberhard
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland; Department of Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Rolf W. Hartmann
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland; Department of Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry; Saarland University; Campus C2.3 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
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19
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A Nano-MgO and Ionic Liquid-Catalyzed 'Green' Synthesis Protocol for the Development of Adamantyl-Imidazolo-Thiadiazoles as Anti-Tuberculosis Agents Targeting Sterol 14α-Demethylase (CYP51). PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139798. [PMID: 26470029 PMCID: PMC4607480 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, we describe the 'green' synthesis of novel 6-(adamantan-1-yl)-2-substituted-imidazo[2,1-b][1,3,4]thiadiazoles (AITs) by ring formation reactions using 1-(adamantan-1-yl)-2-bromoethanone and 5-alkyl/aryl-2-amino1,3,4-thiadiazoles on a nano material base in ionic liquid media. Given the established activity of imidazothiadiazoles against M. tuberculosis, we next examined the anti-TB activity of AITs against the H37Rv strain using Alamar blue assay. Among the tested compounds 6-(adamantan-1-yl)-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)imidazo[2,1-b][1,3,4]thiadiazole (3f) showed potent inhibitory activity towards M. tuberculosis with an MIC value of 8.5 μM. The inhibitory effect of this molecule against M. tuberculosis was comparable to the standard drugs such as Pyrazinamide, Streptomycin, and Ciprofloxacin drugs. Mechanistically, an in silico analysis predicted sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) as the likely target and experimental activity of 3f in this system corroborated the in silico target prediction. In summary, we herein report the synthesis and biological evaluation of novel AITs against M. tuberculosis that likely target CYP51 to induce their antimycobacterial activity.
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20
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Sykes ML, Avery VM. Development and application of a sensitive, phenotypic, high-throughput image-based assay to identify compound activity against Trypanosoma cruzi amastigotes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-DRUGS AND DRUG RESISTANCE 2015; 5:215-28. [PMID: 27120069 PMCID: PMC4847003 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Revised: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
We have developed a high content 384-well, image-based assay to estimate the effect of compound treatment on Trypanosoma cruzi amastigotes in 3T3 fibroblasts. In the same well, the effect of compound activity on host cells can also be determined, as an initial indicator of cytotoxicity. This assay has been used to identify active compounds from an in-house library of compounds with either known biological activity or that are FDA approved, and separately, from the Medicines for Malaria Venture Malaria Box collection. Active compounds were screened against T. cruzi trypomastigotes, utilising an assay developed with the viability dye resazurin. Twelve compounds with reconfirmed solid sample activity, with IC50 values of less than 10 μM and selectivity indices to T. cruzi amastigotes over 3T3 host cells of between >22 and 319 times were identified from these libraries. As 3T3 cells are contact inhibited, with limited proliferation in the assay, selective compounds of interest were profiled in a separate assay to estimate the viability of compound treated, replicating HEK293 cells. Selective compounds that were not previously reported in the literature were further profiled by extending the incubation time against amastigote infected 3T3 cells to determine if there were residual amastigotes post-treatment, important for the consideration of the exposure time required for further biological characterisation. The assay development process and the suitability of identified compounds as hit molecules for Chagas disease research are discussed. Image-based techniques to quantify compound activity against Trypanosoma cruzi. Two fluorophores to accurately identify amastigote infection of host cells. Selective hit compounds with a potential for further development are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa L Sykes
- Discovery Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Vicky M Avery
- Discovery Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
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21
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Riley J, Brand S, Voice M, Caballero I, Calvo D, Read KD. Development of a Fluorescence-based Trypanosoma cruzi CYP51 Inhibition Assay for Effective Compound Triaging in Drug Discovery Programmes for Chagas Disease. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0004014. [PMID: 26394211 PMCID: PMC4578769 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), is a life threatening global health problem with only two drugs available for treatment (benznidazole and nifurtimox), both having variable efficacy in the chronic stage of the disease and high rates of adverse drug reactions. Inhibitors of sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) have proven effective against T. cruzi in vitro and in vivo in animal models of Chagas disease. Consequently two azole inhibitors of CYP51 (posaconazole and ravuconazole) have recently entered clinical development by the Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative. Further new drug treatments for this disease are however still urgently required, particularly having a different mode of action to CYP51 in order to balance the overall risk in the drug discovery portfolio. This need has now been further strengthened by the very recent reports of treatment failure in the clinic for both posaconazole and ravuconazole. To this end and to prevent enrichment of drug candidates against a single target, there is a clear need for a robust high throughput assay for CYP51 inhibition in order to evaluate compounds active against T. cruzi arising from phenotypic screens. A high throughput fluorescence based functional assay using recombinantly expressed T. cruzi CYP51 (Tulahuen strain) is presented here that meets this requirement. This assay has proved valuable in prioritising medicinal chemistry resource on only those T. cruzi active series arising from a phenotypic screening campaign where it is clear that the predominant mode of action is likely not via inhibition of CYP51. Chagas disease, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), is endemic in Latin America and emerging in North America and Europe through human migration. It is a severe global health problem with 8–10 million people infected and an estimated 12,000 deaths annually. Current treatment options are poorly efficacious and have severe side effects. New drugs are therefore urgently required. Two of these potential new drugs, posaconazole and ravuconazole, both targeting an enzyme in T. cruzi called CYP51, have recently failed in clinical development. Therefore, in light of these recent clinical failures and in order to better balance the overall risk in the drug discovery portfolio for Chagas disease, it has become prudent to assess whether new chemical start points for drug discovery programmes have a mode of action predominantly driven by T. cruzi CYP51 inhibition. In this paper we report a fluorescence based assay to determine whether compounds inhibit T. cruzi CYP51. This provides a high throughput screen to help prioritise medicinal chemistry resource on those T. cruzi active new chemical series that do not have a mode of action predominantly driven by CYP51 inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Riley
- Drug Discovery Unit, Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Brand
- Drug Discovery Unit, Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | | | - Ivan Caballero
- Molecular Discovery Research-Tres Cantos, GlaxoSmithKline, Centro de Investigación Básica, Tres Cantos, Spain
| | - David Calvo
- Molecular Discovery Research-Tres Cantos, GlaxoSmithKline, Centro de Investigación Básica, Tres Cantos, Spain
| | - Kevin D. Read
- Drug Discovery Unit, Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Targeting Ergosterol biosynthesis in Leishmania donovani: essentiality of sterol 14 alpha-demethylase. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003588. [PMID: 25768284 PMCID: PMC4359151 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmania protozoan parasites (Trypanosomatidae family) are the causative agents of cutaneous, mucocutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis worldwide. While these diseases are associated with significant morbidity and mortality, there are few adequate treatments available. Sterol 14alpha-demethylase (CYP51) in the parasite sterol biosynthesis pathway has been the focus of considerable interest as a novel drug target in Leishmania. However, its essentiality in Leishmania donovani has yet to be determined. Here, we use a dual biological and pharmacological approach to demonstrate that CYP51 is indispensable in L. donovani. We show via a facilitated knockout approach that chromosomal CYP51 genes can only be knocked out in the presence of episomal complementation and that this episome cannot be lost from the parasite even under negative selection. In addition, we treated wild-type L. donovani and CYP51-deficient strains with 4-aminopyridyl-based inhibitors designed specifically for Trypanosoma cruzi CYP51. While potency was lower than in T. cruzi, these inhibitors had increased efficacy in parasites lacking a CYP51 allele compared to complemented parasites, indicating inhibition of parasite growth via a CYP51-specific mechanism and confirming essentiality of CYP51 in L. donovani. Overall, these results provide support for further development of CYP51 inhibitors for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Visceral leishmaniasis is the second most lethal parasitic infection after malaria. Other forms of leishmaniasis also cause significant morbidity. However, there are few treatments available, and many cause severe side effects or are associated with the development of resistance. A key difference between mammalian cells and Leishmania parasites is the type of sterol in their membranes: while mammalian cell membranes contain cholesterol, Leishmania parasites use ergosterol. There has therefore been considerable interest in developing inhibitors of sterol biosynthesis pathways to target Leishmania parasites. Sterol 14alpha-demethylase (CYP51) is one of the enzymes in the sterol biosynthesis pathway, and the target of significant drug development research in Leishmania. Here we use a double approach to determine whether this gene is essential in Leishmania donovani, the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis. We demonstrate via gene knockout and drug targeting approaches that loss or inhibition of CYP51 inhibits L. donovani growth. These results validate CYP51 as a drug target in L. donovani and support further work to develop CYP51-directed therapies for visceral leishmaniasis.
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Choi JY, Podust LM, Roush WR. Drug strategies targeting CYP51 in neglected tropical diseases. Chem Rev 2014; 114:11242-71. [PMID: 25337991 PMCID: PMC4254036 DOI: 10.1021/cr5003134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yong Choi
- Department
of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Larissa M. Podust
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, and Department of
Pathology, University of California—San
Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - William R. Roush
- Department
of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
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24
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Vieira DF, Choi JY, Calvet CM, Siqueira-Neto JL, Johnston JB, Kellar D, Gut J, Cameron MD, McKerrow JH, Roush WR, Podust LM. Binding mode and potency of N-indolyloxopyridinyl-4-aminopropanyl-based inhibitors targeting Trypanosoma cruzi CYP51. J Med Chem 2014; 57:10162-75. [PMID: 25393646 PMCID: PMC4266343 DOI: 10.1021/jm501568b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
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Chagas disease is a chronic infection
in humans caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and manifested
in progressive cardiomyopathy
and/or gastrointestinal dysfunction. Limited therapeutic options to
prevent and treat Chagas disease put 8 million people infected with T. cruzi worldwide at risk. CYP51, involved in the biosynthesis
of the membrane sterol component in eukaryotes, is a promising drug
target in T. cruzi. We report the structure–activity
relationships (SAR) of an N-arylpiperazine series
of N-indolyloxopyridinyl-4-aminopropanyl-based inhibitors
designed to probe the impact of substituents in the terminal N-phenyl
ring on binding mode, selectivity and potency. Depending on the substituents
at C-4, two distinct ring binding modes, buried and solvent-exposed,
have been observed by X-ray structure analysis (resolution of 1.95–2.48
Å). The 5-chloro-substituted analogs 9 and 10 with no substituent at C-4 demonstrated improved selectivity
and potency, suppressing ≥99.8% parasitemia in mice when administered
orally at 25 mg/kg, b.i.d., for 4 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debora F Vieira
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, ‡Department of Pathology, and §Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California-San Francisco , San Francisco, California 94158, United States
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25
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Warfield J, Setzer WN, Ogungbe IV. Interactions of antiparasitic sterols with sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) of human pathogens. SPRINGERPLUS 2014; 3:679. [PMID: 25932361 PMCID: PMC4410773 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2014] [Accepted: 11/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Sterol 14α-demethylase is a validated and an attractive drug target in human protozoan parasites. Pharmacological inactivation of this important enzyme has proven very effective against fungal infections, and it is a target that is being exploited for new antitrypanosomal and antileishmanial chemotherapy. We have used in silico calculations to identify previously reported antiparasitic sterol-like compounds and their structural congeners that have preferential and high docking affinity for CYP51. The sterol 14α-demethylase from Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania infantum, in particular, preferentially dock to taraxerol, epi-oleanolic acid, and α/β-amyrim structural scaffolds. These structural information and predicted interactions can be exploited for fragment/structure-based antiprotozoal drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine Warfield
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS 39217 USA
| | - William N Setzer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899 USA
| | - Ifedayo Victor Ogungbe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS 39217 USA
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26
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Calvet C, Vieira D, Choi JY, Kellar D, Cameron MD, Siqueira-Neto JL, Gut J, Johnston JB, Lin L, Khan S, McKerrow JH, Roush WR, Podust LM. 4-Aminopyridyl-based CYP51 inhibitors as anti-Trypanosoma cruzi drug leads with improved pharmacokinetic profile and in vivo potency. J Med Chem 2014; 57:6989-7005. [PMID: 25101801 PMCID: PMC4148169 DOI: 10.1021/jm500448u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
CYP51 is a P450 enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of the sterol components of eukaryotic cell membranes. CYP51 inhibitors have been developed to treat infections caused by fungi, and more recently the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease. To specifically optimize drug candidates for T. cruzi CYP51 (TcCYP51), we explored the structure-activity relationship (SAR) of a N-indolyl-oxopyridinyl-4-aminopropanyl-based scaffold originally identified in a target-based screen. This scaffold evolved via medicinal chemistry to yield orally bioavailable leads with potent anti-T. cruzi activity in vivo. Using an animal model of infection with a transgenic T. cruzi Y luc strain expressing firefly luciferase, we prioritized the biaryl and N-arylpiperazine analogues by oral bioavailability and potency. The drug-target complexes for both scaffold variants were characterized by X-ray structure analysis. Optimization of both binding mode and pharmacokinetic properties of these compounds led to potent inhibitors against experimental T. cruzi infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia
M. Calvet
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic
Diseases, Department of Pathology and Department of Medicine, Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, University of California San
Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- Cellular
Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz
Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de
Janeiro, Re de Janeiro 21040-362, Brazil
| | - Debora
F. Vieira
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic
Diseases, Department of Pathology and Department of Medicine, Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, University of California San
Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Jun Yong Choi
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps
Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United
States
| | - Danielle Kellar
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic
Diseases, Department of Pathology and Department of Medicine, Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, University of California San
Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Michael D. Cameron
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps
Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United
States
| | - Jair Lage Siqueira-Neto
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic
Diseases, Department of Pathology and Department of Medicine, Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, University of California San
Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Jiri Gut
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic
Diseases, Department of Pathology and Department of Medicine, Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, University of California San
Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Jonathan B. Johnston
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic
Diseases, Department of Pathology and Department of Medicine, Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, University of California San
Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Li Lin
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps
Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United
States
| | - Susan Khan
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps
Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United
States
| | - James H. McKerrow
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic
Diseases, Department of Pathology and Department of Medicine, Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, University of California San
Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - William R. Roush
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps
Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United
States
| | - Larissa M. Podust
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic
Diseases, Department of Pathology and Department of Medicine, Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, University of California San
Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
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27
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Efficient electrochemical N-alkylation of N-boc-protected 4-aminopyridines: towards new biologically active compounds. ISRN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2014; 2014:621592. [PMID: 24955255 PMCID: PMC4041018 DOI: 10.1155/2014/621592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The use of electrogenerated acetonitrile anion allows the alkylation of N-Boc-4-aminopyridine in very high yields, under mild conditions and without by-products. The high reactivity of this base is due to its large tetraethylammonium counterion, which leaves the acetonitrile anion “naked.” The deprotection of the obtained compounds led to high yields in N-alkylated 4-aminopyridines. Nonsymmetrically dialkylated 4-aminopyridines were obtained by subsequent reaction of monoalkylated ones with t-BuOK and alkyl halides, while symmetrically dialkylated 4-aminopyridines were obtained by direct reaction of 4-aminopyridine with an excess of t-BuOK and alkyl halides. Some mono- and dialkyl-4-aminopyridines were selected to evaluate antifungal and antiprotozoal activity; the dialkylated 4-aminopyridines 3ac, 3ae and 3ff showed antifungal towards Cryptococcus neoformans; whereas 3cc, 3ee and 3ff showed antiprotozoal activity towards Leishmania infantum and Plasmodium falciparum.
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28
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Vieira DF, Choi JY, Roush WR, Podust LM. Expanding the binding envelope of CYP51 inhibitors targeting Trypanosoma cruzi with 4-aminopyridyl-based sulfonamide derivatives. Chembiochem 2014; 15:1111-20. [PMID: 24771705 PMCID: PMC4091728 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201402027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease is a chronic infection caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, manifested in progressive cardiomyopathy and/or gastrointestinal dysfunction. Therapeutic options to prevent or treat Chagas disease are limited. CYP51, the enzyme key to the biosynthesis of eukaryotic membrane sterols, is a validated drug target in both fungi and T. cruzi. Sulfonamide derivatives of 4-aminopyridyl-based inhibitors of T. cruzi CYP51 (TcCYP51), including the sub-nanomolar compound 3, have molecular structures distinct from other validated CYP51 inhibitors. They augment the biologically relevant chemical space of molecules targeting TcCYP51. In a 2.08 Å X-ray structure, TcCYP51 is in a conformation that has been influenced by compound 3 and is distinct from the previously characterized ground-state conformation of CYP51 drug-target complexes. That the binding site was modulated in response to an incoming inhibitor for the first time characterizes TcCYP51 as a flexible target rather than a rigid template.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debora F. Vieira
- Department of Pathology, Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, 1700 4th Street, San Francisco, California, 94158 (USA), Fax: (+)1 415 502-8193
| | - Jun Yong Choi
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida, 33458, (USA), Fax: (+)1 561 228-3052
| | - William R. Roush
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida, 33458, (USA), Fax: (+)1 561 228-3052
| | - Larissa M. Podust
- Department of Pathology, Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, 1700 4th Street, San Francisco, California, 94158 (USA), Fax: (+)1 415 502-8193
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29
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Choi JY, Calvet CM, Vieira DF, Gunatilleke SS, Cameron MD, McKerrow JH, Podust LM, Roush WR. R-Configuration of 4-Aminopyridyl-Based Inhibitors of CYP51 Confers Superior Efficacy Against Trypanosoma cruzi. ACS Med Chem Lett 2014; 5:434-9. [PMID: 24900854 DOI: 10.1021/ml500010m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2014] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) is an important therapeutic target for fungal and parasitic infections due to its key role in the biosynthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of the cell membranes of these pathogenic organisms. We report the development of potent and selective d-tryptophan-derived inhibitors of T. cruzi CYP51. Structural information obtained from the cocrystal structure of CYP51 and (R)-2, which is >1000-fold more potent than its enantiomer (S)-1, was used to guide design of additional analogues. The in vitro efficacy data presented here for (R)-2-(R)-8, together with preliminary in vitro pharmacokinetic data suggest that this new CYP51 inhibitor scaffold series has potential to deliver drug candidates for treatment of T. cruzi infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yong Choi
- Department
of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Claudia M. Calvet
- Cellular
Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de
Janeiro, RJ 21040-362, Brazil
| | | | | | - Michael D. Cameron
- Department
of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | | | | | - William R. Roush
- Department
of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
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30
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Keenan M, Chaplin JH, Alexander PW, Abbott MJ, Best WM, Khong A, Botero A, Perez C, Cornwall S, Thompson RA, White KL, Shackleford DM, Koltun M, Chiu FCK, Morizzi J, Ryan E, Campbell M, von Geldern TW, Scandale I, Chatelain E, Charman SA. Two analogues of fenarimol show curative activity in an experimental model of Chagas disease. J Med Chem 2013; 56:10158-70. [PMID: 24304150 PMCID: PMC3884847 DOI: 10.1021/jm401610c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Chagas
disease, caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), is an increasing threat to global health.
Available medicines were introduced over 40 years ago, have undesirable
side effects, and give equivocal results of cure in the chronic stage
of the disease. We report the development of two compounds, 6 and (S)-7, with PCR-confirmed
curative activity in a mouse model of established T. cruzi infection after once daily oral dosing for 20 days at 20 mg/kg 6 and 10 mg/kg (S)-7. Compounds 6 and (S)-7 have potent in vitro activity, are noncytotoxic,
show no adverse effects in vivo following repeat dosing, are prepared
by a short synthetic route, and have druglike properties suitable
for preclinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martine Keenan
- Epichem Pty Ltd. , Murdoch University Campus, South Street, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia
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31
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Choi JY, Calvet CM, Gunatilleke SS, Ruiz C, Cameron MD, McKerrow JH, Podust LM, Roush WR. Rational development of 4-aminopyridyl-based inhibitors targeting Trypanosoma cruzi CYP51 as anti-chagas agents. J Med Chem 2013; 56:7651-68. [PMID: 24079662 PMCID: PMC3864028 DOI: 10.1021/jm401067s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A new series of 4-aminopyridyl-based lead inhibitors targeting Trypanosoma cruzi CYP51 (TcCYP51) has been developed using structure-based drug design as well as structure-property relationship (SPR) analyses. The screening hit starting point, LP10 (KD ≤ 42 nM; EC50 = 0.65 μM), has been optimized to give the potential leads 14t, 27i, 27q, 27r, and 27t, which have low-nanomolar binding affinity to TcCYP51 and significant activity against T. cruzi amastigotes cultured in human myoblasts (EC50 = 14-18 nM for 27i and 27r). Many of the optimized compounds have improved microsome stability, and most are selective against human CYPs 1A2, 2D6, and 3A4 (<50% inhibition at 1 μM). A rationale for the improvement in microsome stability and selectivity of inhibitors against human metabolic CYP enzymes is presented. In addition, the binding mode of 14t with the Trypanosoma brucei CYP51 (TbCYP51) orthologue has been characterized by X-ray structure analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yong Choi
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Claudia M. Calvet
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Shamila S. Gunatilleke
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Claudia Ruiz
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Michael D. Cameron
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - James H. McKerrow
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Larissa M. Podust
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - William R. Roush
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
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32
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Friggeri L, Scipione L, Costi R, Kaiser M, Moraca F, Zamperini C, Botta B, Di Santo R, De Vita D, Brun R, Tortorella S. New Promising Compounds with in Vitro Nanomolar Activity against Trypanosoma cruzi. ACS Med Chem Lett 2013; 4:538-41. [PMID: 24900706 DOI: 10.1021/ml400039r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The antiparasitic activity of azole and new 4-aminopyridine derivatives has been investigated. The imidazoles 1 and 3-5 showed a potent in vitro antichagasic activity with IC50 values in the low nanomolar concentration range. The (S)-1, (S)-3, and (S)-5 enantiomers showed (up to) a thousand-fold higher activity than the reference drug benznidazole and furthermore low cytotoxicity on rat myogenic L6 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Friggeri
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie
del Farmaco, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Luigi Scipione
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie
del Farmaco, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Costi
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione
Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, “Sapienza” Università di Roma,
P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Department Medical Parasitology
and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4051 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Francesca Moraca
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie,
Chimica e Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Siena, Via A. Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Claudio Zamperini
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie,
Chimica e Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Siena, Via A. Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Bruno Botta
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie
del Farmaco, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Roberto Di Santo
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione
Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, “Sapienza” Università di Roma,
P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Daniela De Vita
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie
del Farmaco, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Reto Brun
- Department Medical Parasitology
and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4051 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Silvano Tortorella
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie
del Farmaco, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
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33
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Recent Developments in Sterol 14-demethylase Inhibitors for Chagas Disease. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-DRUGS AND DRUG RESISTANCE 2012; 2:236-242. [PMID: 23277882 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2011.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, causes the most prevalent parasitic infection in the American continent. It gives rise to life-long infection in humans and results in severe cardiomyopathy or other life-threatening manifestations (Chagas disease) in ~30% of those infected. Animal models and clinical studies indicate that etiological treatment of the infection reduces the risk of developing the disease manifestations. Unfortunately, the existing chemotherapeutics have suboptimal antiparasitic activity and cause significant side effects in many patients, thus better anti-trypanosomal drugs are greatly needed. The sterol biosynthesis pathway has received attention as a target for the development of new drugs for Chagas disease. In particular, inhibitors of sterol 14-demethylase (CYP51) are shown to be extremely active on Trypanosoma cruzi in vitro and in animal models. Antifungal drugs (i.e. azoles) in clinical use or in clinical studies have been extensively tested preclinically on Trypanosoma cruzi with posaconazole and ravuconazole demonstrating the most promising activity. As a result, posaconazole and a pro-drug of ravuconazole (E1224) are currently being evaluated in Phase II studies for Chagas disease. Additional CYP51 inhibitors that are specifically optimized for anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity are in development by academia. These represent an alternative to proprietary antifungal drugs if the latter fall short in clinical trials or are too expensive for widespread clinical use in disease endemic countries. The research over the next few years will help define the role of CYP51 inhibitors, alone or in combination with other drugs, for managing patients with Chagas disease.
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34
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Berne S, Podobnik B, Zupanec N, Novak M, Kraševec N, Turk S, Korošec B, Lah L, Šuligoj E, Stojan J, Gobec S, Komel R. Virtual Screening Yields Inhibitors of Novel Antifungal Drug Target, Benzoate 4-Monooxygenase. J Chem Inf Model 2012; 52:3053-63. [DOI: 10.1021/ci3004418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Berne
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute
of Biochemistry, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Barbara Podobnik
- Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Verovškova 57, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Neja Zupanec
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology
and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Metka Novak
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology
and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nada Kraševec
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology
and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Samo Turk
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Chair of
Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva cesta 7, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Branka Korošec
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology
and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ljerka Lah
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology
and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Erika Šuligoj
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology
and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jure Stojan
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute
of Biochemistry, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Stanislav Gobec
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Chair of
Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva cesta 7, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Radovan Komel
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute
of Biochemistry, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology
and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Gunatilleke SS, Calvet CM, Johnston JB, Chen CK, Erenburg G, Gut J, Engel JC, Ang KKH, Mulvaney J, Chen S, Arkin MR, McKerrow JH, Podust LM. Diverse inhibitor chemotypes targeting Trypanosoma cruzi CYP51. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2012; 6:e1736. [PMID: 22860142 PMCID: PMC3409115 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chagas Disease, a WHO- and NIH-designated neglected tropical disease, is endemic in Latin America and an emerging infection in North America and Europe as a result of population moves. Although a major cause of morbidity and mortality due to heart failure, as well as inflicting a heavy economic burden in affected regions, Chagas Disease elicits scant notice from the pharmaceutical industry because of adverse economic incentives. The discovery and development of new routes to chemotherapy for Chagas Disease is a clear priority. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The similarity between the membrane sterol requirements of pathogenic fungi and those of the parasitic protozoon Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas human cardiopathy, has led to repurposing anti-fungal azole inhibitors of sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) for the treatment of Chagas Disease. To diversify the therapeutic pipeline of anti-Chagasic drug candidates we exploited an approach that included directly probing the T. cruzi CYP51 active site with a library of synthetic small molecules. Target-based high-throughput screening reduced the library of ∼104,000 small molecules to 185 hits with estimated nanomolar K(D) values, while cross-validation against T. cruzi-infected skeletal myoblast cells yielded 57 active hits with EC(50) <10 µM. Two pools of hits partially overlapped. The top hit inhibited T. cruzi with EC(50) of 17 nM and was trypanocidal at 40 nM. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The hits are structurally diverse, demonstrating that CYP51 is a rather permissive enzyme target for small molecules. Cheminformatic analysis of the hits suggests that CYP51 pharmacology is similar to that of other cytochromes P450 therapeutic targets, including thromboxane synthase (CYP5), fatty acid ω-hydroxylases (CYP4), 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (CYP17) and aromatase (CYP19). Surprisingly, strong similarity is suggested to glutaminyl-peptide cyclotransferase, which is unrelated to CYP51 by sequence or structure. Lead compounds developed by pharmaceutical companies against these targets could also be explored for efficacy against T. cruzi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamila S. Gunatilleke
- Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Claudia M. Calvet
- Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Cellular Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Jonathan B. Johnston
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Chiung-Kuang Chen
- Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Grigori Erenburg
- King's University College at the University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jiri Gut
- Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Juan C. Engel
- Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Kenny K. H. Ang
- Small Molecule Discovery Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Joseph Mulvaney
- Small Molecule Discovery Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Steven Chen
- Small Molecule Discovery Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Michelle R. Arkin
- Small Molecule Discovery Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - James H. McKerrow
- Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Larissa M. Podust
- Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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Wang S, Jin G, Wang W, Zhu L, Zhang Y, Dong G, Liu Y, Zhuang C, Miao Z, Yao J, Zhang W, Sheng C. Design, synthesis and structure–activity relationships of new triazole derivatives containing N-substituted phenoxypropylamino side chains. Eur J Med Chem 2012; 53:292-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2012.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2011] [Revised: 04/07/2012] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Lepesheva GI, Villalta F, Waterman MR. Targeting Trypanosoma cruzi sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51). ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2011; 75:65-87. [PMID: 21820552 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385863-4.00004-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
There are at least two obvious features that must be considered upon targeting specific metabolic pathways/enzymes for drug development: the pathway must be essential and the enzyme must allow the design of pharmacologically useful inhibitors. Here, we describe Trypanosoma cruzi sterol 14α-demethylase as a promising target for anti-Chagasic chemotherapy. The use of anti-fungal azoles, which block sterol biosynthesis and therefore membrane formation in fungi, against the protozoan parasite has turned out to be highly successful: a broad spectrum anti-fungal drug, the triazole compound posaconazole, is now entering phase II clinical trials for treatment of Chagas disease. This review summarizes comparative information on anti-fungal azoles and novel inhibitory scaffolds selective for Trypanosomatidae sterol 14α-demethylase through the lens of recent structure/functional characterization of the target enzyme. We believe our studies open wide opportunities for rational design of novel, pathogen-specific and therefore more potent and efficient anti-trypanosomal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galina I Lepesheva
- Department of Biochemistry School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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Verma S, Mehta A, Shaha C. CYP5122A1, a novel cytochrome P450 is essential for survival of Leishmania donovani. PLoS One 2011; 6:e25273. [PMID: 21966477 PMCID: PMC3179497 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2011] [Accepted: 08/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cytochrome P450s (CYP450s) are hemoproteins catalysing diverse biochemical reactions important for metabolism of xenobiotics and synthesis of physiologically important compounds such as sterols. Therefore, they are functionally important for survival of invading pathogens. One such opportunistic pathogen Leishmania donovani causes visceral leishmaniasis worldwide, which is an important public health problem due to significant disease burden. The parasite genome database, Gene DB, annotates 3 CYP450s in Leishmania, however, the functional role of cytochrome P450 enzymes in Leishmania spp. remains elusive. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS A CYP450-like gene cloned from Leishmania donovani was identified as a novel CYP450, the CYP5122A1. Upon co-localization with organelle specific markers, CYP5122A1 distribution was shown to be localized in the promastigote ER, mitochondria and the glycosomes. Replacement of one allele of CYP5122A1 with either neomycin or hygromycin gene by homologous recombination in Leishmania promastigotes induced substantial reduction of CYP5122A1 expression. These parasites showed impaired growth, lower mitochondrial Ca(2+) and membrane potential resulting in low ATP generation. Also, these parasites were less infective in vitro and in vivo than their wild-type counterparts as assessed by incubation of Leishmania promastigotes with macrophages in vitro as well as through administration of parasites into hamsters. The HKOs were more susceptible to drugs like miltefosine and antimony, but showed reduced sensitivity to amphotericin B. Removal of two alleles of CYP5122A1 did not allow the parasites to survive. The mutant parasites showed 3.5 times lower ergosterol level as compared to the wild-type parasites when estimated by Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Complementation of CYP5122A1 through episomal expression of protein by using pXG-GFP+2 vector partially rescued CYP5122A1 expression and restored ergosterol levels by 1.8 times. Phenotype reversal included restored growth pattern and lesser drug susceptibility. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE In summary, this study establishes CYP5122A1 as an important molecule linked to processes like cell growth, infection and ergosterol biosynthesis in Leishmania donovani.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smriti Verma
- Cell Death and Differentiation Research Laboratory, Centre for Molecular Medicine National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, India
| | - Ashish Mehta
- Cell Death and Differentiation Research Laboratory, Centre for Molecular Medicine National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, India
| | - Chandrima Shaha
- Cell Death and Differentiation Research Laboratory, Centre for Molecular Medicine National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, India
- * E-mail:
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Snelders E, Karawajczyk A, Verhoeven RJA, Venselaar H, Schaftenaar G, Verweij PE, Melchers WJG. The structure-function relationship of the Aspergillus fumigatuscyp51A L98H conversion by site-directed mutagenesis: the mechanism of L98H azole resistance. Fungal Genet Biol 2011; 48:1062-70. [PMID: 21907818 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2011.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2011] [Revised: 08/17/2011] [Accepted: 08/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Since 1998, the rapid emergence of multi-azole-resistance (MAR) was observed in Aspergillus fumigatus in the Netherlands. Two dominant mutations were found in the cyp51A gene, a 34bp tandem repeat (TR) in the promoter region combined with a leucine to histidine substitution at codon 98 (L98H). In this study, we show that molecular dynamics simulations combined with site-directed mutagenesis of amino acid substitutions in the cyp51A gene, correlate to the structure-function relationship of the L98H substitution conferring to MAR in A. fumigatus. Because of a L98H directed change in the flexibility of the loops, that comprise a gate-like structure in the protein, the capacity of the two ligand entry channels is modified by narrowing the diameter and thereby binding of azoles is obstructed. Moreover, the L98H induced relocation of tyrosine 121 and tyrosine 107 seems to be related to the MAR phenotype, without affecting the biological activity of the CYP51A protein. Site-directed mutagenesis showed that both the 34bp TR and the L98H mutation are required to obtain the MAR phenotype. Furthermore, the amino acid leucine in codon 98 in A. fumigatus is highly conserved and important for maintaining the structure of the CYP51A protein that is essential for azole docking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eveline Snelders
- Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Department of Medical Microbiology, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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Robertson SA, Renslo AR. Drug discovery for neglected tropical diseases at the Sandler Center. Future Med Chem 2011; 3:1279-88. [PMID: 21859302 PMCID: PMC3199145 DOI: 10.4155/fmc.11.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The Sandler Center's approach to target-based drug discovery for neglected tropical diseases is to focus on parasite targets that are homologous to human targets being actively investigated in the pharmaceutical industry. In this way we attempt to use both the know-how and actual chemical matter from other drug-development efforts to jump start the discovery process for neglected tropical diseases. Our approach is akin to drug repurposing, except that we seek to repurpose leads rather than drugs. Medicinal chemistry can then be applied to optimize the leads specifically for the desired antiparasitic indication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie A Robertson
- Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, 600 16th Street, S-272, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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41
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The Mycobacterium tuberculosis cytochromes P450: physiology, biochemistry & molecular intervention. Future Med Chem 2011; 2:1339-53. [PMID: 21426022 DOI: 10.4155/fmc.10.216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) encodes 20 cytochrome P450 (P450) enzymes. Gene essentiality for viability or host infection was demonstrated for Mtb P450s CYP128, CYP121 and CYP125. Structure/function studies on Mtb P450s revealed key roles contributing to bacterial virulence and persistence in the host. Various azole-class drugs bind with high affinity to the Mtb P450 heme and are potent Mtb antibiotics. This paper reviews the current understanding of the biochemistry of Mtb P450s, their interactions with azoles and their potential as novel Mtb drug targets. Mtb multidrug resistance is widespread and novel therapeutics are desperately needed. Simultaneous drug targeting of several Mtb P450s crucial to bacterial viability/persistence could offer a new route to effective antibiotics and minimize the development of drug resistance.
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42
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Ouellet H, Kells PM, Ortiz de Montellano PR, Podust LM. Reverse type I inhibitor of Mycobacterium tuberculosis CYP125A1. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:332-7. [PMID: 21109436 PMCID: PMC3011832 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2010] [Accepted: 11/01/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 CYP125A1 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a potential therapeutic target for tuberculosis in humans, initiates degradation of the aliphatic chain of host cholesterol and is essential for establishing M. tuberculosis infection in a mouse model of disease. We explored the interactions of CYP125A1 with a reverse type I inhibitor by X-ray structure analysis and UV-vis spectroscopy. Compound LP10 (α-[(4-methylcyclohexyl)carbonyl amino]-N-4-pyridinyl-1H-indole-3-propanamide), previously identified as a potent type II inhibitor of Trypanosomacruzi CYP51, shifts CYP125A1 to a water-coordinated low-spin state upon binding with low micromolar affinity. When LP10 is present in the active site, the crystal structure and spectral characteristics both demonstrate changes in lipophilic and electronic properties favoring coordination of the iron axial water ligand. These results provide an insight into the structural requirements for developing selective CYP125A1 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugues Ouellet
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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43
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Pochapsky TC, Kazanis S, Dang M. Conformational plasticity and structure/function relationships in cytochromes P450. Antioxid Redox Signal 2010; 13:1273-96. [PMID: 20446763 PMCID: PMC2959183 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2010.3109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The cytochrome P450s are a superfamily of enzymes that are found in all kingdoms of living organisms, and typically catalyze the oxidative addition of atomic oxygen to an unactivated C-C or C-H bond. Over 8000 nonredundant sequences of putative and confirmed P450 enzymes have been identified, but three-dimensional structures have been determined for only a small fraction of these. While all P450 enzymes for which structures have been determined share a common global fold, the flexibility and modularity of structure around the active site account for the ability of P450 enzymes to accommodate a vast number of structurally dissimilar substrates and support a wide range of selective oxidations. In this review, known P450 structures are compared, and some structural criteria for prediction of substrate selectivity and reaction type are suggested. The importance of dynamic processes such as redox-dependent and effector-induced conformational changes in determining catalytic competence and regio- and stereoselectivity is discussed, and noncrystallographic methods for characterizing P450 structures and dynamics, in particular, mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Pochapsky
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454-9110, USA.
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44
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Urbina JA. Specific chemotherapy of Chagas disease: relevance, current limitations and new approaches. Acta Trop 2010; 115:55-68. [PMID: 19900395 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2009.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 323] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2009] [Revised: 10/22/2009] [Accepted: 10/26/2009] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A critical review of the development of specific chemotherapeutic approaches for the management of American Trypanosomiasis or Chagas disease is presented, including controversies on the pathogenesis of the disease, the initial efforts that led to the development of currently available drugs (nifurtimox and benznidazole), limitations of these therapies and novel approaches for the development of anti-Trypanosoma cruzi drugs, based on our growing understanding of the biology of this parasite. Among the later, the most promising approaches are ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors such as posaconazole and ravuconazole, poised to enter clinical trials for chronic Chagas disease in the short term; inhibitors of cruzipain, the main cysteine protease of T. cruzi, essential for its survival and proliferation in vitro and in vivo; bisphosphonates, metabolic stable pyrophosphate analogs that have trypanocidal activity through the inhibition of the parasite's farnesyl-pyrophosphate synthase or hexokinase; inhibitors of trypanothione synthesis and redox metabolism and inhibitors of hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl-transferase, an essential enzyme for purine salvage in T. cruzi and related organisms. Finally, the economic and political challenges faced by development of drugs for the treatment of neglected tropical diseases, which afflict almost exclusively poor populations in developing countries, are analyzed and recent potential solutions for this conundrum are discussed.
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Doyle PS, Chen CK, Johnston JB, Hopkins SD, Leung SSF, Jacobson MP, Engel JC, McKerrow JH, Podust LM. A nonazole CYP51 inhibitor cures Chagas' disease in a mouse model of acute infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54:2480-8. [PMID: 20385875 PMCID: PMC2876414 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00281-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2010] [Revised: 03/29/2010] [Accepted: 04/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas' disease, the leading cause of heart failure in Latin America, is caused by the kinetoplastid protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. The sterols of T. cruzi resemble those of fungi, both in composition and in biosynthesis. Azole inhibitors of sterol 14alpha-demethylase (CYP51) successfully treat fungal infections in humans, and efforts to adapt the success of antifungal azoles posaconazole and ravuconazole as second-use agents for Chagas' disease are under way. However, to address concerns about the use of azoles for Chagas' disease, including drug resistance and cost, the rational design of nonazole CYP51 inhibitors can provide promising alternative drug chemotypes. We report the curative effect of the nonazole CYP51 inhibitor LP10 in an acute mouse model of T. cruzi infection. Mice treated with an oral dose of 40 mg LP10/kg of body weight twice a day (BID) for 30 days, initiated 24 h postinfection, showed no signs of acute disease and had histologically normal tissues after 6 months. A very stringent test of cure showed that 4/5 mice had negative PCR results for T. cruzi, and parasites were amplified by hemoculture in only two treated mice. These results compare favorably with those reported for posaconazole. Electron microscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of sterol composition confirmed that treatment with LP10 blocked the 14alpha-demethylation step and induced breakdown of parasite cell membranes, culminating in severe ultrastructural and morphological alterations and death of the clinically relevant amastigote stage of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia S. Doyle
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - Chiung-Kuang Chen
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - Jonathan B. Johnston
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - Stephanie D. Hopkins
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - Siegfried S. F. Leung
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - Matthew P. Jacobson
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - Juan C. Engel
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - James H. McKerrow
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - Larissa M. Podust
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94158
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von Kries JP, Warrier T, Podust LM. Identification of small-molecule scaffolds for p450 inhibitors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; Chapter 17:Unit17.4. [PMID: 20131225 DOI: 10.1002/9780471729259.mc1704s16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP) attract ongoing interest for their pharmacological development potential, driving direct screening efforts against potential CYP targets with the ultimate goal of developing potent CYP-specific inhibitors and/or molecular probes to address M. tuberculosis biology. The property of CYP enzymes to shift the ferric heme Fe Soret band in response to ligand binding provides the basis for an experimental platform for high-throughput screening (HTS) of compound libraries to select chemotypes with high binding affinities to the target. Promising compounds can be evaluated in in vitro assays or in vivo disease models and further characterized by x-ray crystallography, leading to optimization strategies to assist drug design. Protocols are provided for compound library screening, analysis of inhibitory potential, and co-crystallization with the target CYP, as well as expression and purification of soluble CYP enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens P von Kries
- Screening Unit, Leibniz Institute for Molecular Pharmacology (FMP), Berlin, Germany
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47
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Chen CK, Leung SSF, Guilbert C, Jacobson MP, McKerrow JH, Podust LM. Structural characterization of CYP51 from Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma brucei bound to the antifungal drugs posaconazole and fluconazole. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2010; 4:e651. [PMID: 20386598 PMCID: PMC2850312 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2009] [Accepted: 02/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chagas Disease is the leading cause of heart failure in Latin America. Current drug therapy is limited by issues of both efficacy and severe side effects. Trypansoma cruzi, the protozoan agent of Chagas Disease, is closely related to two other major global pathogens, Leishmania spp., responsible for leishmaniasis, and Trypansoma brucei, the causative agent of African Sleeping Sickness. Both T. cruzi and Leishmania parasites have an essential requirement for ergosterol, and are thus vulnerable to inhibitors of sterol 14alpha-demethylase (CYP51), which catalyzes the conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol. Clinically employed anti-fungal azoles inhibit ergosterol biosynthesis in fungi, and specific azoles are also effective against both Trypanosoma and Leishmania parasites. However, modification of azoles to enhance efficacy and circumvent potential drug resistance has been problematic for both parasitic and fungal infections due to the lack of structural insights into drug binding. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We have determined the crystal structures for CYP51 from T. cruzi (resolutions of 2.35 A and 2.27 A), and from the related pathogen T. brucei (resolutions of 2.7 A and 2.6 A), co-crystallized with the antifungal drugs fluconazole and posaconazole. Remarkably, both drugs adopt multiple conformations when binding the target. The fluconazole 2,4-difluorophenyl ring flips 180 degrees depending on the H-bonding interactions with the BC-loop. The terminus of the long functional tail group of posaconazole is bound loosely in the mouth of the hydrophobic substrate binding tunnel, suggesting that the major contribution of the tail to drug efficacy is for pharmacokinetics rather than in interactions with the target. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The structures provide new insights into binding of azoles to CYP51 and mechanisms of potential drug resistance. Our studies define in structural detail the CYP51 therapeutic target in T. cruzi, and offer a starting point for rationally designed anti-Chagasic drugs with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiung-Kuang Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Siegfried S. F. Leung
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Christophe Guilbert
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Matthew P. Jacobson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - James H. McKerrow
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Larissa M. Podust
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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Cerecetto H, González M. Synthetic Medicinal Chemistry in Chagas' Disease: Compounds at The Final Stage of "Hit-To-Lead" Phase. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3:810-838. [PMID: 27713281 PMCID: PMC4034012 DOI: 10.3390/ph3040810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas' disease, or American trypanosomosiasis, has been the most relevant illness produced by protozoa in Latin America. Synthetic medicinal chemistry efforts have provided an extensive number of chemodiverse hits at the "active-to-hit" stage. However, only a more limited number of these have been studied in vivo in models of Chagas' disease. Herein, we survey some of the cantidates able to surpass the "hit-to-lead" stage discussing their limitations or merit to enter in clinical trials in the short term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Cerecetto
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República, Iguá 4225, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay.
| | - Mercedes González
- Laboratorio de Química Orgánica, Instituto de Química Biológica-Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Iguá 4225, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay.
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McKerrow JH, Doyle PS, Engel JC, Podust LM, Robertson SA, Ferreira R, Saxton T, Arkin M, Kerr ID, Brinen LS, Craik CS. Two approaches to discovering and developing new drugs for Chagas disease. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2010; 104 Suppl 1:263-9. [PMID: 19753483 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762009000900034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This review will focus on two general approaches carried out at the Sandler Center, University of California, San Francisco, to address the challenge of developing new drugs for the treatment of Chagas disease. The first approach is target-based drug discovery, and two specific targets, cytochrome P450 CYP51 and cruzain (aka cruzipain), are discussed. A 'proof of concept' molecule, the vinyl sulfone inhibitor K777, is now a clinical candidate. The preclinical assessment compliance for filing as an Investigational New Drug with the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is presented, and an outline of potential clinical trials is given. The second approach to identifying new drug leads is parasite phenotypic screens in culture. The development of an assay allowing high throughput screening of Trypanosoma cruzi amastigotes in skeletal muscle cells is presented. This screen has the advantage of not requiring specific strains of parasites, so it could be used with field isolates, drug resistant strains or laboratory strains. It is optimized for robotic liquid handling and has been validated through a screen of a library of FDA-approved drugs identifying 65 hits.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H McKerrow
- Sandler Center at Mission Bay, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158-2330, USA.
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Urbina JA. Ergosterol biosynthesis and drug development for Chagas disease. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2010; 104 Suppl 1:311-8. [PMID: 19753490 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762009000900041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2009] [Accepted: 05/18/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This article presents an overview of the currently available drugs nifurtimox (NFX) and benznidazole (BZN) used against Trypanosoma cruzi, the aetiological agent of Chagas disease; herein we discuss their limitations along with potential alternatives with a focus on ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors (EBI). These compounds are currently the most advanced candidates for new anti-T. cruzi agents given that they block de novo production of 24-alkyl-sterols, which are essential for parasite survival and cannot be replaced by a host's own cholesterol. Among these compounds, new triazole derivatives that inhibit the parasite's C14alpha sterol demethylase are the most promising, as they have been shown to have curative activity in murine models of acute and chronic Chagas disease and are active against NFX and BZN-resistant T. cruzi strains; among this class of compounds, posaconazole (Schering-Plough Research Institute) and ravuconazole (Eisai Company) are poised for clinical trials in Chagas disease patients in the short term. Other T. cruzi-specific EBI, with in vitro and in vivo potency, include squalene synthase, lanosterol synthase and squalene epoxidase-inhibitors as well as compounds with dual mechanisms of action (ergosterol biosynthesis inhibition and free radical generation), but they are less advanced in their development process. The main putative advantages of EBI over currently available therapies include their higher potency and selectivity in both acute and chronic infections, activity against NFX and BZN-resistant T. cruzi strains, and much better tolerability and safety profiles. Limitations may include complexity and cost of manufacture of the new compounds. As for any new drug, such compounds will require extensive clinical testing before being introduced for clinical use, and the complexity of such studies, particularly in chronic patients, will be compounded by the current limitations in the verification of true parasitological cures for T. cruzi infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio A Urbina
- Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela.
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