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de Franca MNF, Rodrigues LS, Barreto AS, da Cruz GS, Aragão-Santos JC, da Silva AM, de Jesus AR, Palatnik-de-Sousa CB, de Almeida RP, Corrêa CB. CD4 + Th1 and Th17 responses and multifunctional CD8 T lymphocytes associated with cure or disease worsening in human visceral leishmaniasis. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1277557. [PMID: 38410517 PMCID: PMC10895669 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1277557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction In VL, a proinflammatory phenotype is typically associated with enhanced phagocytosis and a Th1 mediated immune response resulting in infection control. In contrast, an anti-inflammatory phenotype, associated with a predominant regulatory response, typically enables intracellular multiplication of Leishmania parasites and disease progression. Methods To investigate the impact of chemotherapy on Th2 and Th17 immune responses in patients with visceral leishmaniasis (VL), we assessed all combinations of intracellular expression of IFN-γ, IL-10, IL-4 and IL-17 in the CD4+ and CD8+ T cell populations of peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) samples from patients, after antigenic stimulation with Leishmania lysate, throughout treatment and follow-up. As increases in spleen and liver sizes and decreases in hematocrit, hemogloblin, erythrocytes, monocytes, leukocytes and platelets levels are strongly related to the disease, we studied the correlations between the frequencies of T cells producing the afore mentioned cytokines, individually and in combination, and these variables, as markers of disease or cure. Results We found that the frequency of IFN-γ-producingCD4+ T cells increased until the end of chemotherapy with Glucantime® or AmBisome ®, while IL-10, IL-4 and IL-17-producing CD4+ T cells peaked on day 7 following the start of treatment. Although the frequency of CD4+IL-17+ cells decreased during treatment an increase was observed after clinical cure. The frequency of CD4+ T cells producing only IFN-γ or IL-17 correlated with blood monocytes levels. Frequencies of double-producers of IFN-γ and IL-10 or IL-4 correlated positively with eosinophils and platelets levels. Together, this suggest that IFN-γ drives the immune response towards Th1 at cure. In contrast, and associated with disease or Th2 response, the frequency of CD4+ IL-10+ cells correlated positively with spleen sizes and negatively with circulating monocyte levels, while the frequency of CD4+ producing both IL-4 and IL-10 correlated negatively with platelets levels. The frequency of CD8+ single-producers of IFN-γ increased from day 21 to 90 while that of single-producers of IL-10 peaked on day 7, of IL-4 on day 30 and of IL-17, on day 180. IFN-γ expression in CD8+ single- and double-producers of cytokines was indicative of an immune response associated with cure. In contrast, frequencies of CD8+ double-producers of IL-4 and IL-10, IL-4 and IL-17 and IL-10 and IL-17 and producers of three and four cytokines, were associated with disease and were low after the cure. Frequencies of CD8+ T cells producing IFN-γ alone or with IL-17 were positively correlated with platelets levels. In contrast, as markers of disease: 1) frequencies of single producers of IL-10 correlated negatively with leukocytes levels, 2) frequencies of double producers of IL-4 and IL-10 correlated negatively with platelet, leukocyte, lymphocyte and circulating monocyte levels, 3) frequencies of triple-producers of IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-10 correlated negatively with platelet, leukocyte and neutrophil levels and 4) frequencies of producers of IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-10 and IL-17 simultaneously correlated positively with spleen size, and negatively with leukocyte and neutrophil levels. Discussion Our results confirmed that the clinical improvement of VL patients correlates with the decrease of an IL-4 and IL-10 CD4+Th2 response, the recovery of CD4+ Th1 and Th17 responses and the frequency of CD8+ single-producers of IFN-γ and double producers of IFN-γ and IL-17.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Nobre Farias de Franca
- Laboratory of Biology and Immunology of Cancer and Leishmania, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Lorranny Santana Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Biology and Immunology of Cancer and Leishmania, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Aline Silva Barreto
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Division of Immunology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, University Hospital/Empresa Brasileira de Serviços Hospitalares (EBSERBH), Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Geydson Silveira da Cruz
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Division of Immunology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, University Hospital/Empresa Brasileira de Serviços Hospitalares (EBSERBH), Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - José Carlos Aragão-Santos
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Angela Maria da Silva
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Amélia Ribeiro de Jesus
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Division of Immunology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, University Hospital/Empresa Brasileira de Serviços Hospitalares (EBSERBH), Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), INCT, CNPq, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Clarisa B. Palatnik-de-Sousa
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), Insititutos nacionais de Ciência e Tecnologia (INCT), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Vegetal Biotechnology and Bioprocesses, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Roque Pacheco de Almeida
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Division of Immunology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, University Hospital/Empresa Brasileira de Serviços Hospitalares (EBSERBH), Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), INCT, CNPq, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Cristiane Bani Corrêa
- Laboratory of Biology and Immunology of Cancer and Leishmania, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
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N Cavallone I, Santos SK, Oliveira KS, D Passero LF, D Laurenti M, Jesus JA, P Marinsek G, Chucri TM, Mari RB. Histological and neuronal changes in the duodenum of hamsters infected with Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum. Exp Parasitol 2022; 239:108315. [PMID: 35780863 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2022.108315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by parasites belonging to the Leishmania genus that infect macrophages in different tissues such as the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, bone marrow, and intestine. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the integrity of the intestinal tract and the nitrergic (NADPH-dp) and metabolically active (NADH-dp) myenteric neurons of the duodenum of golden hamsters infected with L. (L.) infantum. Therefore, thirty golden hamsters were divided into six groups (n = 5); three of them were infected with 2 × 107 promastigote forms of L. (L.) infantum by intraperitoneal route (Infected Group - IG) and three were inoculated with saline solution (control group - CG). After 30, 60 and 90 days post-infection (DPI) infected animals were euthanized and the liver, spleen and duodenum were collected to analyze tissue parasitism. The duodenum was processed using usual histological techniques to analyze the main changes that occurred during infection and histochemical techniques to phenotype myenteric neurons. Amastigote forms were observed in the spleen, liver, and duodenum during all experimental periods, and tissue parasitism in these organs increased significantly over time. At 30 DPI, reduction in muscle tunic, increase in the total intestinal wall and the number of goblet cells PAS+ was observed. At 60 DPI, an increase in intestinal crypts and intraepithelial lymphocytes was observed, and a reduction in intestinal villi was observed at 90 DPI, along with an increase in crypt size. Regarding neurons, an increase in the density of the NADPH-dp population was observed at 30 DPI, but at 60 and 90 DPI a significant reduction of this population was observed. In general, infection progression was observed to cause significant morphofunctional changes in the duodenum of infected hamsters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Italo N Cavallone
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Vicente, 11.380-97, Brazil
| | - Sarah K Santos
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Vicente, 11.380-97, Brazil
| | - Karine S Oliveira
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Vicente, 11.380-97, Brazil
| | - Luiz Felipe D Passero
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Vicente, 11.380-97, Brazil
| | - Márcia D Laurenti
- Laboratory of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, FMUSP, São Paulo, 01246903, Brazil
| | - Jéssica Adriana Jesus
- Laboratory of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, FMUSP, São Paulo, 01246903, Brazil
| | - Gabriela P Marinsek
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Vicente, 11.380-97, Brazil
| | - Thaís M Chucri
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Vicente, 11.380-97, Brazil
| | - Renata B Mari
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Vicente, 11.380-97, Brazil.
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Rodrigues LS, Barreto AS, Bomfim LGS, Gomes MC, Ferreira NLC, da Cruz GS, Magalhães LS, de Jesus AR, Palatnik-de-Sousa CB, Corrêa CB, de Almeida RP. Multifunctional, TNF-α and IFN-γ-Secreting CD4 and CD8 T Cells and CD8 High T Cells Are Associated With the Cure of Human Visceral Leishmaniasis. Front Immunol 2021; 12:773983. [PMID: 34777391 PMCID: PMC8581227 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.773983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a chronic and often fatal disease caused by protozoans of the genus Leishmania that affects millions of people worldwide. Patients with symptomatic VL have an impaired anti-Leishmania-specific CD4+ T-cell response, which is reversed after clinical cure. In contrast, the quality of the CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses involved in resistance and/or cure of VL relies on the capability of these cells to activate polyfunctional and memory responses, which are associated with the simultaneous production of three cytokines: IFN-γ, IL-2, and TNF-α. Models for the development of CD4 and CD8 T-cell quality in memory and protection to leishmaniasis have been described previously. We aimed to assess the functionality of the T cells involved in the recovery of the immune suppression throughout the VL treatment. Therefore, we cultured peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from VL patients and healthy controls in vitro with soluble Leishmania antigen (SLA). Cell surface markers and intracellular cytokine production were determined on days 7, 14, 21, 30, 60, 90, and 180 after the beginning of chemotherapy. We observed that the frequencies of CD4+TNF-α+IFN-γ+ and the multifunctional CD4+IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ+, together with CD4+TNF-α+ and CD4+IFN-γ+ T cells, increased throughout and at the end of the treatment, respectively. In addition, enhanced frequencies of CD8+IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ+ and CD8+TNF-α+IFN-γ T cells were also relevant in the healing process. Noteworthy, the frequencies of the CD4+ and CD8 central-memory T cells, which produce IL-2, TNF-α, and IFN-γ and ensure the memory response against parasite reinfection, are significantly enhanced in cured patients. In addition, the subset of the non-functional CD8Low population is predominant in VL untreated patients and decreases along the chemotherapy treatment. In contrast, a CD8High subset increased towards the cure. Furthermore, the cure due to treatment with meglumine antimoniate or with liposomal amphotericin B was associated with the recovery of the T-cell immune responses. We described the evolution and participation of functional T cells during the treatment of patients with VL. Our results disclosed that the clinical improvement of patients is significantly associated with the participation of the CD4+ and CD8+ cytokine-secreting T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorranny Santana Rodrigues
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), National Insitute of Science and Technology (INCT), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Aracaju, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Aline Silva Barreto
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), National Insitute of Science and Technology (INCT), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Aracaju, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil.,Division of Immunology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, University Hospital/Brazilian Hospital Services Company (EBSERH), Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Lays Gisele Santos Bomfim
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), National Insitute of Science and Technology (INCT), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Aracaju, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Marcos Couto Gomes
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), National Insitute of Science and Technology (INCT), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Aracaju, Brazil
| | - Nathalia Luisa Carlos Ferreira
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), National Insitute of Science and Technology (INCT), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Aracaju, Brazil
| | - Geydson Silveira da Cruz
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil.,Division of Immunology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, University Hospital/Brazilian Hospital Services Company (EBSERH), Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Lucas Sousa Magalhães
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), National Insitute of Science and Technology (INCT), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Aracaju, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Amélia Ribeiro de Jesus
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), National Insitute of Science and Technology (INCT), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Aracaju, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil.,Division of Immunology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, University Hospital/Brazilian Hospital Services Company (EBSERH), Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Clarisa B Palatnik-de-Sousa
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil.,Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), National Insitute of Science and Technology (INCT), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Cristiane Bani Corrêa
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil.,Laboratory of Biology and Immunology of Cancer and Leishmania, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, Brazil
| | - Roque Pacheco de Almeida
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Sergipe, Immunology Investigative Institute (III), National Insitute of Science and Technology (INCT), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Aracaju, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil.,Division of Immunology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, University Hospital/Brazilian Hospital Services Company (EBSERH), Federal University of Sergipe, Sergipe, Brazil
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Kourbeli V, Chontzopoulou E, Moschovou K, Pavlos D, Mavromoustakos T, Papanastasiou IP. An Overview on Target-Based Drug Design against Kinetoplastid Protozoan Infections: Human African Trypanosomiasis, Chagas Disease and Leishmaniases. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26154629. [PMID: 34361781 PMCID: PMC8348971 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26154629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The protozoan diseases Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), Chagas disease (CD), and leishmaniases span worldwide and therefore their impact is a universal concern. The present regimen against kinetoplastid protozoan infections is poor and insufficient. Target-based design expands the horizon of drug design and development and offers novel chemical entities and potential drug candidates to the therapeutic arsenal against the aforementioned neglected diseases. In this review, we report the most promising targets of the main kinetoplastid parasites, as well as their corresponding inhibitors. This overview is part of the Special Issue, entitled "Advances of Medicinal Chemistry against Kinetoplastid Protozoa (Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp.) Infections: Drug Design, Synthesis and Pharmacology".
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Affiliation(s)
- Violeta Kourbeli
- Department of Pharmacy, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimioupoli-Zografou, 157 84 Athens, Greece;
| | - Eleni Chontzopoulou
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimioupoli-Zografou, 157 71 Athens, Greece; (E.C.); (K.M.); (D.P.); (T.M.)
| | - Kalliopi Moschovou
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimioupoli-Zografou, 157 71 Athens, Greece; (E.C.); (K.M.); (D.P.); (T.M.)
| | - Dimitrios Pavlos
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimioupoli-Zografou, 157 71 Athens, Greece; (E.C.); (K.M.); (D.P.); (T.M.)
| | - Thomas Mavromoustakos
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimioupoli-Zografou, 157 71 Athens, Greece; (E.C.); (K.M.); (D.P.); (T.M.)
| | - Ioannis P. Papanastasiou
- Department of Pharmacy, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimioupoli-Zografou, 157 84 Athens, Greece;
- Correspondence:
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J B, M BM, Chanda K. An Overview on the Therapeutics of Neglected Infectious Diseases-Leishmaniasis and Chagas Diseases. Front Chem 2021; 9:622286. [PMID: 33777895 PMCID: PMC7994601 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.622286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) as termed by WHO include twenty different infectious diseases that are caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Among these NTDs, Chagas disease and leishmaniasis are reported to cause high mortality in humans and are further associated with the limitations of existing drugs like severe toxicity and drug resistance. The above hitches have rendered researchers to focus on developing alternatives and novel therapeutics for the treatment of these diseases. In the past decade, several target-based drugs have emerged, which focus on specific biochemical pathways of the causative parasites. For leishmaniasis, the targets such as nucleoside analogs, inhibitors targeting nucleoside phosphate kinases of the parasite’s purine salvage pathway, 20S proteasome of Leishmania, mitochondria, and the associated proteins are reviewed along with the chemical structures of potential drug candidates. Similarly, in case of therapeutics for Chagas disease, several target-based drug candidates targeting sterol biosynthetic pathway (C14-ademethylase), L-cysteine protease, heme peroxidation, mitochondria, farnesyl pyrophosphate, etc., which are vital and unique to the causative parasite are discussed. Moreover, the use of nano-based formulations towards the therapeutics of the above diseases is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brindha J
- Division of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, India
| | - Balamurali M M
- Division of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, India
| | - Kaushik Chanda
- Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
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Huchting J. Targeting viral genome synthesis as broad-spectrum approach against RNA virus infections. Antivir Chem Chemother 2020; 28:2040206620976786. [PMID: 33297724 PMCID: PMC7734526 DOI: 10.1177/2040206620976786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Zoonotic spillover, i.e. pathogen transmission from animal to human, has repeatedly introduced RNA viruses into the human population. In some cases, where these viruses were then efficiently transmitted between humans, they caused large disease outbreaks such as the 1918 flu pandemic or, more recently, outbreaks of Ebola and Coronavirus disease. These examples demonstrate that RNA viruses pose an immense burden on individual and public health with outbreaks threatening the economy and social cohesion within and across borders. And while emerging RNA viruses are introduced more frequently as human activities increasingly disrupt wild-life eco-systems, therapeutic or preventative medicines satisfying the “one drug-multiple bugs”-aim are unavailable. As one central aspect of preparedness efforts, this review digs into the development of broadly acting antivirals via targeting viral genome synthesis with host- or virus-directed drugs centering around nucleotides, the genomes’ universal building blocks. Following the first strategy, selected examples of host de novo nucleotide synthesis inhibitors are presented that ultimately interfere with viral nucleic acid synthesis, with ribavirin being the most prominent and widely used example. For directly targeting the viral polymerase, nucleoside and nucleotide analogues (NNAs) have long been at the core of antiviral drug development and this review illustrates different molecular strategies by which NNAs inhibit viral infection. Highlighting well-known as well as recent, clinically promising compounds, structural features and mechanistic details that may confer broad-spectrum activity are discussed. The final part addresses limitations of NNAs for clinical development such as low efficacy or mitochondrial toxicity and illustrates strategies to overcome these.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Huchting
- Chemistry Department, Institute for Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics, Computer Science and Natural Sciences, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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Chiarante N, Duhalde Vega M, Valli F, Zotta E, Daghero H, Basika T, Bollati-Fogolin M, García Vior MC, Marino J, Roguin LP. In Vivo Photodynamic Therapy With a Lipophilic Zinc(II) Phthalocyanine Inhibits Colorectal Cancer and Induces a Th1/CD8 Antitumor Immune Response. Lasers Surg Med 2020; 53:344-358. [PMID: 32525252 DOI: 10.1002/lsm.23284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an antitumor procedure clinically approved for the treatment of different cancer types. Despite strong efforts and promising results in this field, PDT has not yet been approved by any regulatory authority for the treatment of colorectal cancer, one of the most prevalent gastrointestinal tumors. In the search of novel therapeutic strategies, we examined the in vivo effect of PDT with a lipophilic phthalocyanine (Pc9) encapsulated into polymeric poloxamine micelles (T1107) in a murine colon carcinoma model. STUDY DESIGN/MATERIALS AND METHODS In vivo assays were performed with BALB/c mice challenged with CT26 cells. Pc9 tumor uptake was evaluated with an in vivo imaging system. Immunofluorescence, western blot, and flow cytometry assays were carried out to characterize the activation of apoptosis and an antitumor immune response. RESULTS Pc9-T1107 effectively delayed tumor growth and prolonged mice survival, without generating systemic or tissue-specific toxicity. The induction of an apoptotic response was characterized by a decrease in the expression levels of Bcl-XL , Bcl-2, procaspase 3, full length Bid, a significant increment in the amount of active caspase-3 and the detection of PARP-1 cleavage. Infiltration of CD8+ CD107a+ T cells and higher levels of interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α were also found in PDT-treated tumors. CONCLUSIONS Pc9-T1107 PDT treatment reduced tumor growth, inducing an apoptotic cell death and activating an immune response. Lasers Surg. Med. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Chiarante
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas (IQUIFIB), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, C1113AAD, Argentina
| | - Maite Duhalde Vega
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas (IQUIFIB), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, C1113AAD, Argentina
| | - Federico Valli
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas (IQUIFIB), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, C1113AAD, Argentina
| | - Elsa Zotta
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica Bernardo Houssay (IFIBIO), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Paraguay 2155, Buenos Aires, C1113AAD, Argentina
| | - Hellen Daghero
- Cell Biology Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Mataojo 2020, Montevideo, 11400, Uruguay
| | - Tatiana Basika
- Cell Biology Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Mataojo 2020, Montevideo, 11400, Uruguay
| | | | - María C García Vior
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas (IQUIFIB), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, C1113AAD, Argentina
| | - Julieta Marino
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas (IQUIFIB), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, C1113AAD, Argentina
| | - Leonor P Roguin
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas (IQUIFIB), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, C1113AAD, Argentina
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Gao S, Liu H, de Crécy-Lagard V, Zhu W, Richards NGJ, Naismith JH. PMP-diketopiperazine adducts form at the active site of a PLP dependent enzyme involved in formycin biosynthesis. Chem Commun (Camb) 2019; 55:14502-14505. [PMID: 31730149 PMCID: PMC6927412 DOI: 10.1039/c9cc06975e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
ForI is a PLP-dependent enzyme from the biosynthetic pathway of the C-nucleoside antibiotic formycin. Cycloserine is thought to inhibit PLP-dependent enzymes by irreversibly forming a PMP-isoxazole. We now report that ForI forms novel PMP-diketopiperazine derivatives following incubation with both d and l cycloserine. This unexpected result suggests chemical diversity in the chemistry of cycloserine inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sisi Gao
- Research Complex at Harwell
,
Didcot
, OX11 0FA
, UK
- BSRC
, University of St Andrews
,
St Andrews
, KY16 9ST
, UK
| | - Huanting Liu
- BSRC
, University of St Andrews
,
St Andrews
, KY16 9ST
, UK
| | | | - Wen Zhu
- Department of Chemistry and California
, Institute for Quantitative Biosciences
, University of California
,
Berkeley
, CA 94720
, USA
| | - Nigel G. J. Richards
- School of Chemistry
, Cardiff University
, Park Place
,
Cardiff
, CF10 3AT
, UK
- Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution
,
Alachua
, FL 32415
, USA
| | - James H. Naismith
- Division of Structural Biology
, University of Oxford
,
Oxford
, OX3 7BN
, UK
.
- The Rosalind Franklin Institute
,
Didcot
, OX11 0FA
, UK
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy
, University of Sichuan
,
China
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9
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Palatnik-de-Sousa CB. Nucleoside Hydrolase NH 36: A Vital Enzyme for the Leishmania Genus in the Development of T-Cell Epitope Cross-Protective Vaccines. Front Immunol 2019; 10:813. [PMID: 31040850 PMCID: PMC6477039 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
NH36 is a vital enzyme of the DNA metabolism and a specific target for anti-Leishmania chemotherapy. We developed second-generation vaccines composed of the FML complex or its main native antigen, the NH36 nucleoside hydrolase of Leishmania (L.) donovani and saponin, and a DNA vaccine containing the NH36 gene. All these vaccines were effective in prophylaxis and treatment of mice and dog visceral leishmaniasis (VL). The FML-saponin vaccine became the first licensed veterinary vaccine against leishmaniasis (Leishmune®) which reduced the incidence of human and canine VL in endemic areas. The NH36, DNA or recombinant protein vaccines induced a Th1 CD4+IFN-γ+ mediated protection in mice. Efficacy against VL was mediated by a CD4+TNF-α T lymphocyte response against the NH36-F3 domain, while against tegumentary leishmaniasis (TL) a CD8+ T lymphocyte response to F1 was also required. These domains were 36-41 % more protective than NH36, and a recombinant F1F3 chimera was 21% stronger than the domains, promoting a 99.8% reduction of the parasite load. We also identified the most immunogenic NH36 domains and epitopes for PBMC of active human VL, cured or asymptomatic and DTH+ patients. Currently, the NH36 subunit recombinant vaccine is turning into a multi-epitope T cell synthetic vaccine against VL and TL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarisa Beatriz Palatnik-de-Sousa
- Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute for Research in Immunology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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10
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Abstract
Transition state theory teaches that chemically stable mimics of enzymatic transition states will bind tightly to their cognate enzymes. Kinetic isotope effects combined with computational quantum chemistry provides enzymatic transition state information with sufficient fidelity to design transition state analogues. Examples are selected from various stages of drug development to demonstrate the application of transition state theory, inhibitor design, physicochemical characterization of transition state analogues, and their progress in drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vern L. Schramm
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
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11
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Nico D, Martins Almeida F, Maria Motta J, Soares dos Santos Cardoso F, Freire-de-Lima CG, Freire-de-Lima L, de Luca PM, Maria Blanco Martinez A, Morrot A, Palatnik-de-Sousa CB. NH36 and F3 Antigen-Primed Dendritic Cells Show Preserved Migrating Capabilities and CCR7 Expression and F3 Is Effective in Immunotherapy of Visceral Leishmaniasis. Front Immunol 2018; 9:967. [PMID: 29867949 PMCID: PMC5949526 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Physical contact between dendritic cells (DCs) and T cell lymphocytes is necessary to trigger the immune cell response. CCL19 and CCL21 chemokines bind to the CCR7 receptor of mature DCs, and of T cells and regulate DCs migration to the white pulp (wp) of the spleen, where they encounter lymphocytes. In visceral leishmaniasis (VL), cellular immunosuppression is mediated by impaired DC migration due to the decreased chemokine secretion by endothelium and to the reduced DCs CCR7 expression. The Leishmania (L.) donovani nucleoside hydrolase NH36 and its C-terminal domain, the F3 peptide are prominent antigens in the generation of preventive immunity to VL. We assessed whether these vaccines could prevent the migrating defect of DCs by restoring the expression of CCR7 receptors. C57Bl6 mice were vaccinated with NH36 and F3 and challenged with L. (L.) infantum chagasi. The F3 vaccine induced a 100% of survival and a long-lasting immune protection with an earlier CD4+Th1 response, with secretion of higher IFN-γ and TNF-α/IL-10 ratios, and higher frequencies of CD4+ T cells secreting IL-2+, TNF-α+, or IFN-γ+, or a combination of two or the three cytokines (IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ+). The CD8+ T cell response was promoted earlier by the NH36-vaccine, and later by the F3-vaccine. Maximal number of F3-primed DCs migrated in vitro in response to CCL19 and showed a high expression of CCR7 receptors (26.06%). Anti-CCR7 antibody treatment inhibited DCs migration in vitro (90%) and increased parasite load in vivo. When transferred into 28-day-infected mice, only 8% of DCs from infected, 59% of DCs from NH36-vaccinated, and 84% of DCs from F3-vaccinated mice migrated to the wp. Consequently, immunotherapy of infected mice with F3-primed DCs only, promoted increases in corporal weight and reductions of spleen and liver parasite loads and relative weights. Our findings indicate that vaccination with F3-vaccine preserves the maturation, migration properties and CCR7 expression of DCs, which are essential processes for the generation of cell-mediated immunity. The F3 vaccine is more potent in reversing the migration defect that occurs in VL and, therefore, more efficient in immunotherapy of VL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirlei Nico
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Martins Almeida
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Anatomia Patológica, HUCFF, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Programa de Graduação de Histologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Juliana Maria Motta
- Programa de Glicobiologia, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo De Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Celio Geraldo Freire-de-Lima
- Programa de Imunobiologia, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Freire-de-Lima
- Programa de Medicina Regenerativa, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Paula Melo de Luca
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ana Maria Blanco Martinez
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Anatomia Patológica, HUCFF, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Morrot
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Centro de Pesquisas em Tuberculose, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Clarisa Beatriz Palatnik-de-Sousa
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Investigação em Imunologia, São Paulo, Brazil
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12
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Varshosaz J, Arbabi B, Pestehchian N, Saberi S, Delavari M. Chitosan-titanium dioxide-glucantime nanoassemblies effects on promastigote and amastigote of Leishmania major. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 107:212-221. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.08.177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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13
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Barbosa Santos ML, Nico D, de Oliveira FA, Barreto AS, Palatnik-de-Sousa I, Carrillo E, Moreno J, de Luca PM, Morrot A, Rosa DS, Palatnik M, Bani-Corrêa C, de Almeida RP, Palatnik-de-Sousa CB. Leishmania donovani Nucleoside Hydrolase (NH36) Domains Induce T-Cell Cytokine Responses in Human Visceral Leishmaniasis. Front Immunol 2017; 8:227. [PMID: 28321221 PMCID: PMC5338038 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Development of immunoprotection against visceral leishmaniasis (VL) focused on the identification of antigens capable of inducing a Th1 immune response. Alternatively, antigens targeting the CD8 and T-regulatory responses are also relevant in VL pathogenesis and worthy of being included in a preventive human vaccine. We assessed in active and cured patients and VL asymptomatic subjects the clinical signs and cytokine responses to the Leishmania donovani nucleoside hydrolase NH36 antigen and its N-(F1), central (F2) and C-terminal (F3) domains. As markers of VL resistance, the F2 induced the highest levels of IFN-γ, IL-1β, and TNF-α and, together with F1, the strongest secretion of IL-17, IL-6, and IL-10 in DTH+ and cured subjects. F2 also promoted the highest frequencies of CD3+CD4+IL-2+TNF-α-IFN-γ-, CD3+CD4+IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ-, CD3+CD4+IL-2+TNF-α-IFN-γ+, and CD3+CD4+IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ+ T cells in cured and asymptomatic subjects. Consistent with this, the IFN-γ increase was correlated with decreased spleen (R = -0.428, P = 0.05) and liver sizes (R = -0.428, P = 0.05) and with increased hematocrit counts (R = 0.532, P = 0.015) in response to F1 domain, and with increased hematocrit (R = 0.512, P 0.02) and hemoglobin counts (R = 0.434, P = 0.05) in response to F2. Additionally, IL-17 increases were associated with decreased spleen and liver sizes in response to F1 (R = -0.595, P = 0.005) and F2 (R = -0.462, P = 0.04). Conversely, F1 and F3 increased the CD3+CD8+IL-2+TNF-α-IFN-γ-, CD3+CD8+IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ-, and CD3+CD8+IL-2+TNF-α+IFN-γ+ T cell frequencies of VL patients correlated with increased spleen and liver sizes and decreased hemoglobin and hematocrit values. Therefore, cure and acquired resistance to VL correlate with the CD4+-Th1 and Th-17 T-cell responses to F2 and F1 domains. Clinical VL outcomes, by contrast, correlate with CD8+ T-cell responses against F3 and F1, potentially involved in control of the early infection. The in silico-predicted NH36 epitopes are conserved and bind to many HL-DR and HLA and B allotypes. No human vaccine against Leishmania is available thus far. In this investigation, we identified the NH36 domains and epitopes that induce CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses, which could be used to potentiate a human universal T-epitope vaccine against leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micheli Luize Barbosa Santos
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Hospital Universitário, Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Sergipe (HU-UFS), Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Dirlei Nico
- Laboratório de Biologia e Bioquímica de Leishmania, Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fabrícia Alvisi de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Hospital Universitário, Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Sergipe (HU-UFS), Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Aline Silva Barreto
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Hospital Universitário, Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Sergipe (HU-UFS), Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Iam Palatnik-de-Sousa
- Laboratório de Biometrologia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Metrologia, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Eugenia Carrillo
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Leishmaniasis, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Centro Nacional de Microbiologia, Madrid, Comunidad de Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Moreno
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Leishmaniasis, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Centro Nacional de Microbiologia, Madrid, Comunidad de Madrid, Spain
| | - Paula Mello de Luca
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Morrot
- Laboratório de Imunologia Integrada, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Daniela Santoro Rosa
- Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Investigação em Imunologia, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
- Laboratório de Vacinas experimentais, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos Palatnik
- Laboratório de Imunohematologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Hospital Universitário Clementino Fraga-Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Cristiane Bani-Corrêa
- Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Sergipe (HU-UFS), Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Roque Pacheco de Almeida
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Hospital Universitário, Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Sergipe (HU-UFS), Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
- Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Investigação em Imunologia, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Clarisa Beatriz Palatnik-de-Sousa
- Laboratório de Biologia e Bioquímica de Leishmania, Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Investigação em Imunologia, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
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14
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Uzcanga G, Lara E, Gutiérrez F, Beaty D, Beske T, Teran R, Navarro JC, Pasero P, Benítez W, Poveda A. Nuclear DNA replication and repair in parasites of the genus Leishmania: Exploiting differences to develop innovative therapeutic approaches. Crit Rev Microbiol 2016; 43:156-177. [PMID: 27960617 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2016.1188758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a common tropical disease that affects mainly poor people in underdeveloped and developing countries. This largely neglected infection is caused by Leishmania spp, a parasite from the Trypanosomatidae family. This parasitic disease has different clinical manifestations, ranging from localized cutaneous to more harmful visceral forms. The main limitations of the current treatments are their high cost, toxicity, lack of specificity, and long duration. Efforts to improve treatments are necessary to deal with this infectious disease. Many approved drugs to combat diseases as diverse as cancer, bacterial, or viral infections take advantage of specific features of the causing agent or of the disease. Recent evidence indicates that the specific characteristics of the Trypanosomatidae replication and repair machineries could be used as possible targets for the development of new treatments. Here, we review in detail the molecular mechanisms of DNA replication and repair regulation in trypanosomatids of the genus Leishmania and the drugs that could be useful against this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graciela Uzcanga
- a Centro Internacional de Zoonosis, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria , Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito , Ecuador.,b Programa Prometeo , SENESCYT, Whymper E7-37 y Alpallana, Quito , Ecuador.,c Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Ambientales, Universidad Internacional SEK Calle Alberto Einstein sn y 5ta transversal , Quito , Ecuador.,d Fundación Instituto de Estudios Avanzados-IDEA , Caracas , Venezuela
| | - Eliana Lara
- a Centro Internacional de Zoonosis, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria , Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito , Ecuador.,e Institute of Human Genetics , CNRS UPR 1142, 141 rue de la Cardonille, Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer , Montpellier cedex 5 , France
| | - Fernanda Gutiérrez
- a Centro Internacional de Zoonosis, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria , Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito , Ecuador
| | - Doyle Beaty
- a Centro Internacional de Zoonosis, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria , Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito , Ecuador
| | - Timo Beske
- a Centro Internacional de Zoonosis, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria , Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito , Ecuador
| | - Rommy Teran
- a Centro Internacional de Zoonosis, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria , Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito , Ecuador
| | - Juan-Carlos Navarro
- a Centro Internacional de Zoonosis, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria , Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito , Ecuador.,f Universidad Central de Venezuela, Instituto de Zoología y Ecología Tropical , Caracas , Venezuela.,g Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Ambientales, Universidad Internacional SEK, Calle Alberto Einstein sn y 5ta transversal , Quito , Ecuador
| | - Philippe Pasero
- e Institute of Human Genetics , CNRS UPR 1142, 141 rue de la Cardonille, Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer , Montpellier cedex 5 , France
| | - Washington Benítez
- a Centro Internacional de Zoonosis, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria , Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito , Ecuador
| | - Ana Poveda
- a Centro Internacional de Zoonosis, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria , Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito , Ecuador
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