(De)glutamylation and cell death in Leishmania parasites

In vitro activity and mechanism of cell death induction of cyanomethyl vinyl ethers derivatives against Trypanosoma cruzi

Chagas disease causes a problematic pathology that can lead to megacolon and heart disease, and can even cause the death of the patient. Current therapies for this disease are the same as they were 50 years ago, are not fully effective and have strong side effects. The lack of a safe and effective therapy makes it necessary to search for new, less toxic and totally effective compounds against this parasite. In this work, the antichagasic activity of 46 novel cyanomethyl vinyl ether derivatives was studied. In addition, to elucidate the type of cell death that these compounds produce in parasites, several events related to programmed cell death were studied. The results highlight four more selective compounds, E63, E64, E74 and E83, which also appear to trigger programmed cell death, and are therefore postulated as good candidates to use in future therapeutics for Chagas disease.

Revisiting the Principles of Designing a Vaccine

Immune principles formulated by Jenner, Pasteur, and early immunologists served as fundamental propositions for vaccine discovery against many dreadful pathogens. However, decisive success in the form of an efficacious vaccine still eludes for diseases such as tuberculosis, leishmaniasis, and trypanosomiasis. Several antileishmanial vaccine trials have been undertaken in past decades incorporating live, attenuated, killed, or subunit vaccination, but the goal remains unmet. In light of the above facts, we have to reassess the principles of vaccination by dissecting factors associated with the hosts' immune response. This chapter discusses the pathogen-associated perturbations at various junctures during the generation of the immune response which inhibits antigenic processing, presentation, or remodels memory T cell repertoire. This can lead to ineffective priming or inappropriate activation of memory T cells during challenge infection. Thus, despite a protective primary response, vaccine failure can occur due to altered immune environments in the presence of pathogens.

Leishmania 360°: Guidelines for Exosomal Research

Leishmania parasites are a group of kinetoplastid pathogens that cause a variety of clinical disorders while maintaining cell communication by secreting extracellular vesicles. Emerging technologies have been adapted for the study of Leishmania-host cell interactions, to enable the broad-scale analysis of the extracellular vesicles of this parasite. Leishmania extracellular vesicles (LEVs) are spheroidal nanoparticles of polydispersed suspensions surrounded by a layer of lipid membrane. Although LEVs have attracted increasing attention from researchers, many aspects of their biology remain unclear, including their bioavailability and function in the complex molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis. Given the importance of LEVs in the parasite-host interaction, and in the parasite-parasite relationships that have emerged during the evolutionary history of these organisms, the present review provides an overview of the available data on Leishmania, and formulates guidelines for LEV research. We conclude by reporting direct methods for the isolation of specific LEVs from the culture supernatant of the promastigotes and amastigotes that are suitable for a range of different downstream applications, which increases the compatibility and reproducibility of the approach for the establishment of optimal and comparable isolation conditions and the complete characterization of the LEV, as well as the critical immunomodulatory events triggered by this important group of parasites.

Microtubule polyglutamylation is important for regulating cytoskeletal architecture and motility in Trypanosoma brucei

The shape of kinetoplastids, such as Trypanosoma brucei, is precisely defined during the stages of the life cycle and governed by a stable subpellicular microtubule cytoskeleton. During the cell cycle and transitions between life cycle stages, this stability has to transiently give way to a dynamic behaviour to enable cell division and morphological rearrangements. How these opposing requirements of the cytoskeleton are regulated is poorly understood. Two possible levels of regulation are activities of cytoskeleton-associated proteins and microtubule post-translational modifications (PTMs). Here, we investigate the functions of two putative tubulin polyglutamylases in T. brucei, TTLL6A and TTLL12B. Depletion of both proteins leads to a reduction in tubulin polyglutamylation in situ and is associated with disintegration of the posterior cell pole, loss of the microtubule plus-end-binding protein EB1 and alterations of microtubule dynamics. We also observe a reduced polyglutamylation of the flagellar axoneme. Quantitative motility analysis reveals that the PTM imbalance correlates with a transition from directional to diffusive cell movement. These data show that microtubule polyglutamylation has an important role in regulating cytoskeletal architecture and motility in the parasite T. bruceiThis article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Multiple Facets of Autophagy and the Emerging Role of Alkylphosphocholines as Autophagy Modulators

Autophagy is a highly conserved multistep process and functions as passage for degrading and recycling protein aggregates and defective organelles in eukaryotic cells. Based on the nature of these materials, their size and degradation rate, four types of autophagy have been described, i.e. chaperone mediated autophagy, microautophagy, macroautophagy, and selective autophagy. One of the major regulators of this process is mTOR, which inhibits the downstream pathway of autophagy following the activation of its complex 1 (mTORC1). Alkylphosphocholine (APC) derivatives represent a novel class of antineoplastic agents that inhibit the serine-threonine kinase Akt (i.e. protein kinase B), which mediates cell survival and cause cell cycle arrest. They induce autophagy through inhibition of the Akt/mTOR cascade. They interfere with phospholipid turnover and thus modify signaling chains, which start from the cell membrane and modulate PI3K/Akt/mTOR, Ras-Raf-MAPK/ERK and SAPK/JNK pathways. APCs include miltefosine, perifosine, and erufosine, which represent the first-, second- and third generation of this class, respectively. In a high fraction of human cancers, constitutively active oncoprotein Akt1 suppresses autophagy in vitro and in vivo. mTOR is a down-stream target for Akt, the activation of which suppresses autophagy. However, treatment with APC derivatives will lead to dephosphorylation (hence deactivation) of mTOR and thus induces autophagy. Autophagy is a double-edged sword and may result in chemotherapeutic resistance as well as cancer cell death when apoptotic pathways are inactive. APCs display differential autophagy induction capabilities in different cancer cell types. Therefore, autophagy-dependent cellular responses need to be well understood in order to improve the chemotherapeutic outcome.

Relevance and proteomics challenge of functional posttranslational modifications in Kinetoplastid parasites

Protozoan parasitic infections are health, social and economic issues impacting both humans and animals, with significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Protozoan parasites have complicated life cycles with both intracellular and extracellular forms. As a consequence, protozoan adapt to changing environments in part through a dynamic enzyme-catalyzed process leading to reversible posttranslational modifications (PTMs). The characterization by proteomics approaches reveals the critical role of the PTMs of the proteins involved in host-pathogen interaction. The complexity of PTMs characterization is increased by the high diversity, stoichiometry, dynamic and also co-existence of several PTMs in the same moieties which crosstalk between them. Here, we review how to understand the complexity and the essential role of PTMs crosstalk in order to provide a new hallmark for vaccines developments, immunotherapies and personalized medicine. In addition, the importance of these motifs in the biology and biological cycle of kinetoplastid parasites is highlighted with key examples showing the potential to act as targets against protozoan diseases.