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Sayanthi Y, Susanna D. Pathogenic Leptospira contamination in the environment: a systematic review. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2024; 14:2324820. [PMID: 38511199 PMCID: PMC10953783 DOI: 10.1080/20008686.2024.2324820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The pathogenic Leptospira is maintained in renal tubules of certain animals, mostly rodents, and excreted in the urine which can contaminate the environment. It is necessary to detect pathogenic Leptospira in environmental samples. Knowing the survival of Leptospira in the environment (water and soil) can provide an overview of where and how they can be transmitted to humans. Objective Therefore, this study aimed to provide a systematic overview of pathogenic Leptospira presence in water and soil environment, the various species of pathogenic Leptospira that are harmful for human, and the ability to survive using a systematic review method. Methods The search process used four databases: PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and ProQuest. Furthermore, the articles sought were published from 2000 to July 2021, and 38 were analysed. Results The pathogenic Leptospira contamination in water was higher in urban areas, while soil samples were higher in rural areas. Various pathogenic Leptospira detected in the environment were L. alstonii, L. kmetyi, L. noguchii, and L. interrogans. Those pathogenic Leptospira can survive in water at 4-30°C and at pH < 7; in soil, it can survive at a humidity of < 20% and a pH < 6. Conclusion Urban and rural areas have the same risk for leptospirosis disease because pathogenic Leptospira (P1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulia Sayanthi
- Postgraduate Program in Public Health, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
- Department of Training-Services, PT. Immarez Solusi Utama Consultant - Training – Services, Serang, Banten, Indonesia
| | - Dewi Susanna
- Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
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Bradley EA, Lockaby G. Leptospirosis and the Environment: A Review and Future Directions. Pathogens 2023; 12:1167. [PMID: 37764975 PMCID: PMC10538202 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease of global importance with significant morbidity and mortality. However, the disease is frequently overlooked and underdiagnosed, leading to uncertainty of the true scale and severity of the disease. A neglected tropical disease, leptospirosis disproportionately impacts disadvantaged socioeconomic communities most vulnerable to outbreaks of zoonotic disease, due to contact with infectious animals and contaminated soils and waters. With growing evidence that Leptospira survives, persists, and reproduces in the environment, this paper reviews the current understanding of the pathogen in the environment and highlights the unknowns that are most important for future study. Through a systematic Boolean review of the literature, our study finds that detailed field-based study of Leptospira prevalence, survival, and transmission in natural waters and soils is lacking from the current literature. This review identified a strong need for assessment of physical characteristics and biogeochemical processes that support long-term viability of Leptospira in the environment followed by epidemiological assessment of the transmission and movement of the same strains of Leptospira in the present wildlife and livestock as the first steps in improving our understanding of the environmental stage of the leptospirosis transmission cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A. Bradley
- College of Forestry, Wildlife, and Environment, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
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Verma A, Brandt L, Runser S, Gruszynski K, Gallatin K, Morgan J, Barnhart H, Duke C, Brovarney S, Geer A, Willems E, Strobel R, Bryant C, Pawlowski E, Thaker A. Detection of pathogenic Leptospira spp. in herpetofauna in Central Appalachia. Zoonoses Public Health 2022; 69:325-332. [PMID: 35124897 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 01/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a water borne zoonotic disease of global significance that is caused by pathogenic species of the genus Leptospira. Pathogenic leptospires live in the kidneys of reservoir or infected animals and are shed in their urine contaminating water, soil, etc. Rodents are considered the primary reservoir of leptospirosis, but little is known about the role of herpetofauna (non-avian reptiles and amphibians) in the epidemiology of the disease. To address this, various species of amphibians and reptiles in the Cumberland Gap Region of the Central Appalachia were screened for the presence of Leptospira spp. Kidneys harvested from of a total of 116 amphibians and reptiles belonging to seven species of snakes, seven species of salamanders, seven species of frogs/toads, seven species of turtles and one species of lizards were tested using a highly specific TaqMan based qPCR that targets lipl32 gene of pathogenic Leptospira spp. Overall, 15 of the tested 116 amphibians and reptiles were positive (12.9%; 95% CI: 7.4%-20.4%). Of the 101 amphibians, 11 were positive (10.9%; 95% CI: 5.6%-18.7%), and 4 of the 15 reptiles tested positive (26.7%; 95% CI: 7.8%-55.1%). The amplified gene fragments of lipl32 from qPCR positive kidneys were sequenced and found to be identical with known pathogenic Leptospira spp. These results suggest that although the proportion of reptiles and amphibians transmitting pathogenic Leptospira spp. within the environment may be low as compared to rodents, they pose a risk to other susceptible hosts that share their habitats and may have role in maintaining a baseline infection in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Verma
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
- Center for Infectious, Zoonotic and Vector-borne diseases, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - LaRoy Brandt
- School of Mathematics and Science, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
- Cumberland Mountain Research Center, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Samantha Runser
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Karen Gruszynski
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
- Center for Animal and Human Health in Appalachia, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Kenneth Gallatin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Joey Morgan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Hanna Barnhart
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Conner Duke
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Scott Brovarney
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Allison Geer
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Emily Willems
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Raeshelle Strobel
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Christian Bryant
- School of Mathematics and Science, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Emma Pawlowski
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ashana Thaker
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA
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Assessment of Risk Factors in Synanthropic and Wild Rodents Infected by Pathogenic Leptospira spp. Captured in Southern Chile. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10112133. [PMID: 33212843 PMCID: PMC7697743 DOI: 10.3390/ani10112133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Leptospirosis is a zoonosis caused by pathogenic Leptospira, and synanthropic and wildlife species of rodents are an important source of infection; however, much of the information about the progression of the infection was obtained from lab murine models. The aim of this study was to assess infection status and risk factors by pathogenic Leptospira in synanthropic and wild rodent species and describe histopathological lesions in several organs from naturally infected animals. In this study, 121 rodents from three synanthropic species and two wild species were trapped within dairy farms in Southern Chile, where the bacteria were present. Liver, heart, kidney, and lungs from trapped animals were analyzed by different techniques to detect if the lesions present were produced by the bacteria. A large proportion of animals were identified as infected that were not detected by the microscopic agglutination test. There is a lower risk of infection in the fall compared to the rest of the seasons, and the synanthropic species has a lower risk of infection in comparison with wildlife species. Immunohistochemistry and quantitative real-time lipL32 polymerase chain reaction contributed to identifying the presence of pathogenic Leptospira in related histological lesions and 50% more infections than serology. Abstract Leptospirosis is caused by pathogenic Leptospira, and synanthropic and wildlife species of rodents are an important source of infection; however, much of the information about infection progression was obtained from murine models. The aim of this study was to assess infection status and risk factors associated with pathogenic Leptospira in synanthropic and wild rodent species and describe histopathological lesions in several organs from naturally infected animals. In a cross-sectional study, 121 rodents from three synanthropic species and two wild species were trapped in dairy farms in Southern Chile. Liver, heart, kidney, and lungs from trapped animals were fixed in formalin and stained with hematoxylin–eosin. Tissues with lesions consistent with Leptospira infection were tested by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) using the LipL32 antigen. Risk factors were assessed by a conditional mixed-logistic regression model. More than half (56.7%) of the negative reactors to the microscopic agglutination test were identified as infected either by IHC/qPCR. A lower risk of infection compared to the rest of the seasons was found in the fall, and the synanthropic species have a lower risk of infection in comparison with the wildlife species. IHC and qPCR contributed to the identification of pathogenic Leptospira in related histological lesions and 50% more infections than serology.
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Spangler D, Kish D, Beigel B, Morgan J, Gruszynski K, Naikare H, Nahar VK, Coarsey MD, Verma A. Leptospiral shedding and seropositivity in shelter dogs in the Cumberland Gap Region of Southeastern Appalachia. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0228038. [PMID: 31999733 PMCID: PMC6992200 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leptospirosis, caused by pathogenic Leptospira spp., is a zoonotic infection that affects humans, dogs and many other mammalian species. Virtually any mammalian species can act as asymptomatic reservoir, characterized by chronic renal carriage and shedding of a host-adapted leptospiral serovar. Environmental contamination by chronic shedders results in acquisition of infection by humans and susceptible animals. METHODS In this study, we investigated if clinically normal shelter dogs and cats harbor leptospires in their kidneys by screening urine samples for the presence of leptospiral DNA by a TaqMan based-quantitative PCR (qPCR) that targets pathogen-associated lipl32 gene. To identify the infecting leptospiral species, a fragment of leptospiral rpoB gene was PCR amplified and sequenced. Additionally, we measured Leptospira-specific serum antibodies using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT), a gold standard in leptospiral serology. RESULTS A total of 269 shelter animals (219 dogs and 50 cats) from seven shelters located in the tri-state area of western Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and southeastern Kentucky were included in this study. All cats tested negative by both qPCR and MAT. Of the 219 dogs tested in the study, 26/198 (13.1%, 95% CI: 8.4-17.8%) were positive for leptospiral DNA in urine by qPCR and 38/211 (18.0%, 95% CI: 12.8-23.2%) were seropositive by MAT. Twelve dogs were positive for both qPCR and MAT. Fourteen dogs were positive by qPCR but not by MAT. Additionally, leptospiral rpoB gene sequencing from a sub-set of qPCR-positive urine samples (n = 21) revealed L. interrogans to be the leptospiral species shed by dogs. CONCLUSIONS These findings have significant implications regarding animal and public health in the Cumberland Gap Region and possibly outside where these animals may be adopted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn Spangler
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, TN, United States of America
- Center for Infectious, Zoonotic and Vector-borne Diseases, Harrogate, TN, United States of America
| | - Daniel Kish
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, TN, United States of America
| | - Brittney Beigel
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, TN, United States of America
| | - Joey Morgan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, TN, United States of America
| | - Karen Gruszynski
- Center for Human and Animal Health in Appalachia, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, TN, United States of America
| | - Hemant Naikare
- Tifton Veterinary Diagnostic and Investigational Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA, United States of America
| | - Vinayak K. Nahar
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, The University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, United States of America
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine/John D. Bower School of Population Health, The University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, United States of America
| | - Michele D. Coarsey
- Tifton Veterinary Diagnostic and Investigational Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA, United States of America
| | - Ashutosh Verma
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, TN, United States of America
- Center for Infectious, Zoonotic and Vector-borne Diseases, Harrogate, TN, United States of America
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