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Nandi I, Aroeti B. Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) and Enteric Bacterial Pathogens: A Complex Interplay. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11905. [PMID: 37569283 PMCID: PMC10419152 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241511905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Diverse extracellular and intracellular cues activate mammalian mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). Canonically, the activation starts at cell surface receptors and continues via intracellular MAPK components, acting in the host cell nucleus as activators of transcriptional programs to regulate various cellular activities, including proinflammatory responses against bacterial pathogens. For instance, binding host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on the surface of intestinal epithelial cells to bacterial pathogen external components trigger the MAPK/NF-κB signaling cascade, eliciting cytokine production. This results in an innate immune response that can eliminate the bacterial pathogen. However, enteric bacterial pathogens evolved sophisticated mechanisms that interfere with such a response by delivering virulent proteins, termed effectors, and toxins into the host cells. These proteins act in numerous ways to inactivate or activate critical components of the MAPK signaling cascades and innate immunity. The consequence of such activities could lead to successful bacterial colonization, dissemination, and pathogenicity. This article will review enteric bacterial pathogens' strategies to modulate MAPKs and host responses. It will also discuss findings attempting to develop anti-microbial treatments by targeting MAPKs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin Aroeti
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190410, Israel;
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2
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Danelishvili L, Rojony R, Carson KL, Palmer AL, Rose SJ, Bermudez LE. Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis effector MAVA5_06970 promotes rapid apoptosis in secondary-infected macrophages during cell-to-cell spread. Virulence 2019; 9:1287-1300. [PMID: 30134761 PMCID: PMC6177253 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2018.1504559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis is an opportunistic intracellular pathogen associated with disease in patients either immunosuppression or chronic lung pathology. Once in the host, M. avium preferentially infects and replicates within the phagocytic cells. The host driven macrophage apoptosis appears to be an essential aspect of innate immunity during bacterial infection; however, the existing evidence suggests that M. avium has evolved adaptive approaches to trigger the phagocyte apoptosis, exit apoptotic cells or via ingestion of infected apoptotic bodies subsequently infect neighboring macrophages. By evaluating 4,000 transposon mutants of M. avium in THP-1 cells, we identified clones that can trigger a new form of early host cell apoptosis, which is only observed upon entry into the “secondary-infected” macrophages. Inactivation of MAVA5_06970 gene lead to significant attenuation in intracellular growth within macrophages and mice, and impaired M. avium to induce rapid apoptosis in the “secondary-infected” cells as measured by Annexin V-FITC detection assay. Complementation of MAVA5_06970 gene corrected the attenuation as well as apoptotic phenotypes. The MAVA5_06970 gene encodes for a secreted protein. Using the pull-down assay and then confirmed with the yeast two-hybrid screen, we found that MAVA5_06970 effector interacts with the Secreted Phosphoprotein 1, the cytokine also known as Osteopontin. This interaction enhances the THP-1 cell apoptosis and, consequently, restricts the production of interleukin-12 that likely may limit the activation of the type I immunity pathway in vivo. This work identified a key virulence effector of M. avium that contributes to the cell-to-cell spread of the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lia Danelishvili
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR , USA
| | - Rajoana Rojony
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR , USA
| | - Kylee L Carson
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR , USA
| | - Amy L Palmer
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR , USA
| | - Sasha J Rose
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR , USA
| | - Luiz E Bermudez
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR , USA.,b Department of Microbiology, College of Science , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR , USA
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3
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Herrera Estrada L, Wu H, Ling K, Zhang G, Sumagin R, Parkos CA, Jones RM, Champion JA, Neish AS. Bioengineering Bacterially Derived Immunomodulants: A Therapeutic Approach to Inflammatory Bowel Disease. ACS NANO 2017; 11:9650-9662. [PMID: 28872828 PMCID: PMC7653663 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b03239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial enteric pathogens have evolved efficient mechanisms to suppress mammalian inflammatory and immunoregulatory pathways. By exploiting the evolutionary relationship between the gut and pathogenic bacteria, we have developed a potential mucosal therapeutic. Our findings suggest that engineered preparations of the Salmonella acetyltransferase, AvrA, suppress acute inflammatory responses such as those observed in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). We created 125 nm diameter cross-linked protein nanoparticles directly from AvrA and carrier protein to deliver AvrA in the absence of Salmonella. AvrA nanoparticles are internalized in vitro and in vivo into barrier epithelial and lamina propria monocytic cells. AvrA nanoparticles inhibit inflammatory signaling and confer cytoprotection in vitro, and in murine colitis models, we observe decreased clinical and histological indices of inflammation. Thus, we have combined naturally evolved immunomodulatory proteins with modern bioengineering to produce AvrA nanoparticles, a potential treatment for IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Herrera Estrada
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Drive NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Huixia Wu
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Whitehead Bldg., 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Kevin Ling
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Drive NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Guikai Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Whitehead Bldg., 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Ronen Sumagin
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Whitehead Bldg., 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Charles A. Parkos
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Whitehead Bldg., 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Rheinallt M. Jones
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Whitehead Bldg., 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Julie A. Champion
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Drive NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
- Corresponding Authors: Phone: 404-894-2874. . Phone: 404-727-8545.
| | - Andrew S. Neish
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Whitehead Bldg., 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
- Corresponding Authors: Phone: 404-894-2874. . Phone: 404-727-8545.
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4
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Goldberg AB, Cho E, Miller CJ, Lou HJ, Turk BE. Identification of a Substrate-selective Exosite within the Metalloproteinase Anthrax Lethal Factor. J Biol Chem 2016; 292:814-825. [PMID: 27909054 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.761734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The metalloproteinase anthrax lethal factor (LF) is secreted by Bacillus anthracis to promote disease virulence through disruption of host signaling pathways. LF is a highly specific protease, exclusively cleaving mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (MKKs) and rodent NLRP1B (NACHT leucine-rich repeat and pyrin domain-containing protein 1B). How LF achieves such restricted substrate specificity is not understood. Previous studies have suggested the existence of an exosite interaction between LF and MKKs that promotes cleavage efficiency and specificity. Through a combination of in silico prediction and site-directed mutagenesis, we have mapped an exosite to a non-catalytic region of LF. Mutations within this site selectively impair proteolysis of full-length MKKs yet have no impact on cleavage of short peptide substrates. Although this region appears important for cleaving all LF protein substrates, we found that mutation of specific residues within the exosite differentially affects MKK and NLRP1B cleavage in vitro and in cultured cells. One residue in particular, Trp-271, is essential for cleavage of MKK3, MKK4, and MKK6 but dispensable for targeting of MEK1, MEK2, and NLRP1B. Analysis of chimeric substrates suggests that this residue interacts with the MKK catalytic domain. We found that LF-W271A blocked ERK phosphorylation and growth in a melanoma cell line, suggesting that it may provide a highly selective inhibitor of MEK1/2 for use as a cancer therapeutic. These findings provide insight into how a bacterial toxin functions to specifically impair host signaling pathways and suggest a general strategy for mapping protease exosite interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison B Goldberg
- From the Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520
| | - Eunice Cho
- From the Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520
| | - Chad J Miller
- From the Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520
| | - Hua Jane Lou
- From the Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520
| | - Benjamin E Turk
- From the Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520
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5
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JNK Signaling: Regulation and Functions Based on Complex Protein-Protein Partnerships. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2016; 80:793-835. [PMID: 27466283 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00043-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 321] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs), as members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, mediate eukaryotic cell responses to a wide range of abiotic and biotic stress insults. JNKs also regulate important physiological processes, including neuronal functions, immunological actions, and embryonic development, via their impact on gene expression, cytoskeletal protein dynamics, and cell death/survival pathways. Although the JNK pathway has been under study for >20 years, its complexity is still perplexing, with multiple protein partners of JNKs underlying the diversity of actions. Here we review the current knowledge of JNK structure and isoforms as well as the partnerships of JNKs with a range of intracellular proteins. Many of these proteins are direct substrates of the JNKs. We analyzed almost 100 of these target proteins in detail within a framework of their classification based on their regulation by JNKs. Examples of these JNK substrates include a diverse assortment of nuclear transcription factors (Jun, ATF2, Myc, Elk1), cytoplasmic proteins involved in cytoskeleton regulation (DCX, Tau, WDR62) or vesicular transport (JIP1, JIP3), cell membrane receptors (BMPR2), and mitochondrial proteins (Mcl1, Bim). In addition, because upstream signaling components impact JNK activity, we critically assessed the involvement of signaling scaffolds and the roles of feedback mechanisms in the JNK pathway. Despite a clarification of many regulatory events in JNK-dependent signaling during the past decade, many other structural and mechanistic insights are just beginning to be revealed. These advances open new opportunities to understand the role of JNK signaling in diverse physiological and pathophysiological states.
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6
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Herrera Estrada L, Padmore TJ, Champion JA. Bacterial Effector Nanoparticles as Breast Cancer Therapeutics. Mol Pharm 2016; 13:710-9. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.5b00377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lina Herrera Estrada
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Drive NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Trudy J. Padmore
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Drive NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Julie A. Champion
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Drive NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
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7
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Grishin AM, Beyrakhova KA, Cygler M. Structural insight into effector proteins of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens that modulate the phosphoproteome of their host. Protein Sci 2015; 24:604-20. [PMID: 25565677 DOI: 10.1002/pro.2636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Invading pathogens manipulate cellular process of the host cell to establish a safe replicative niche. To this end they secrete a spectrum of proteins called effectors that modify cellular environment through a variety of mechanisms. One of the most important mechanisms is the manipulation of cellular signaling through modifications of the cellular phosphoproteome. Phosphorylation/dephosphorylation plays a pivotal role in eukaryotic cell signaling, with ∼ 500 different kinases and ∼ 130 phosphatases in the human genome. Pathogens affect the phosphoproteome either directly through the action of bacterial effectors, and/or indirectly through downstream effects of host proteins modified by the effectors. Here we review the current knowledge of the structure, catalytic mechanism and function of bacterial effectors that modify directly the phosphorylation state of host proteins. These effectors belong to four enzyme classes: kinases, phosphatases, phospholyases and serine/threonine acetylases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey M Grishin
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, S7N 5E5
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8
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Salomon D, Orth K. Lost after translation: post-translational modifications by bacterial type III effectors. Curr Opin Microbiol 2013; 16:213-20. [PMID: 23466212 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2013.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2012] [Revised: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Many Gram-negative bacterial pathogens use the type III secretion system to deliver effector proteins into host cells. These effectors use various mechanisms to exploit host processes to the advantage of the pathogen. A large group of effectors use post-translational modifications, either reversible or irreversible, to manipulate host proteins, and while most of these mechanisms mimic eukaryotic activities, others appear to be unique biochemical functions. Deciphering such mechanisms and identifying the host targets of these effectors sheds light on eukaryotic signaling pathways and immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dor Salomon
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern, Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9148, USA
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9
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Abstract
Pathogens exploit several eukaryotic signaling pathways during an infection. They have evolved specific effectors and toxins to hijack host cell machinery for their own benefit. Signaling molecules are preferentially targeted by pathogens because they globally regulate many cellular processes. Both viruses and bacteria manipulate and control pathways that regulate host cell survival and shape, including MAPK signaling, G-protein signaling, signals controlling cytoskeletal dynamics, and innate immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neal M Alto
- UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, USA
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10
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Bromberg-White JL, Andersen NJ, Duesbery NS. MEK genomics in development and disease. Brief Funct Genomics 2012; 11:300-10. [PMID: 22753777 PMCID: PMC3398258 DOI: 10.1093/bfgp/els022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (the MAPK/ERK kinases; MKKs or MEKs) and their downstream substrates, the extracellular-regulated kinases have been intensively studied for their roles in development and disease. Until recently, it had been assumed any mutation affecting their function would have lethal consequences. However, the identification of MEK1 and MEK2 mutations in developmental syndromes as well as chemotherapy-resistant tumors, and the discovery of genomic variants in MEK1 and MEK2 have led to the realization the extent of genomic variation associated with MEKs is much greater than had been appreciated. In this review, we will discuss these recent advances, relating them to what is currently understood about the structure and function of MEKs, and describe how they change our understanding of the role of MEKs in development and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Bromberg-White
- Laboratory of Cancer and Developmental Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, 333 Bostwick Avenue NE, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
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11
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Wölke S, Heesemann J. Probing the cellular effects of bacterial effector proteins with the Yersinia toolbox. Future Microbiol 2012; 7:449-56. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb.12.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The type 3 secretion system (T3SS) is a powerful bacterial nanomachine that is able to modify the host cellular immune defense in favor of the pathogen by injection of effector proteins. In this regard, cellular Rho GTPases such as Rac1, RhoA or Cdc42 are targeted by a large group of T3SS effectors by mimicking cellular guanine exchange factors or GTPase-activating proteins. However, functional analysis of one type of T3SS effector that is translocated by bacterial pathogens is challenging because the T3SS effector repertoire can comprise a large number of proteins with redundant or interfering functions. Therefore, we developed the Yersinia toolbox to either analyze singular effector proteins of Yersinia spp. or different bacterial species in the context of bacterial T3SS injection into cells. Here, we focus on the WxxxE guanine exchange factor mimetic proteins IpgB1, IpgB2 and Map, which activate Rac1, RhoA or Cdc42, respectively, as well as the Rho GTPase inactivators YopE (a GTPase-activating mimetic protein) and YopT (cysteine protease), to generate a toolbox module for Rho GTPase manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Wölke
- Max von Pettenkofer Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie, LMU Munich, Pettenkofer Strasse 9A, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Jürgen Heesemann
- Max von Pettenkofer Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie, LMU Munich, Pettenkofer Strasse 9A, 80336 Munich, Germany
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12
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Lewis JD, Lee A, Ma W, Zhou H, Guttman DS, Desveaux D. The YopJ superfamily in plant-associated bacteria. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2011; 12:928-37. [PMID: 21726386 PMCID: PMC6640427 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2011.00719.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens employ the type III secretion system to secrete and translocate effector proteins into their hosts. The primary function of these effector proteins is believed to be the suppression of host defence responses or innate immunity. However, some effector proteins may be recognized by the host and consequently trigger a targeted immune response. The YopJ/HopZ/AvrRxv family of bacterial effector proteins is a widely distributed and evolutionarily diverse family, found in both animal and plant pathogens, as well as plant symbionts. How can an effector family effectively promote the virulence of pathogens on hosts from two separate kingdoms? Our understanding of the evolutionary relationships among the YopJ superfamily members provides an excellent opportunity to address this question and to investigate the functions and virulence strategies of a diverse type III effector family in animal and plant hosts. In this work, we briefly review the literature on YopJ, the archetypal member from Yersinia pestis, and discuss members of the superfamily in species of Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas, Ralstonia and Rhizobium. We review the molecular and cellular functions, if known, of the YopJ homologues in plants, and highlight the diversity of responses in different plant species, with a particular focus on the Pseudomonas syringae HopZ family. The YopJ superfamily provides an excellent foundation for the study of effector diversification in the context of wide-ranging, co-evolutionary interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Lewis
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Krachler AM, Woolery AR, Orth K. Manipulation of kinase signaling by bacterial pathogens. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 195:1083-92. [PMID: 22123833 PMCID: PMC3246894 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201107132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens use effector proteins to manipulate their hosts to propagate infection. These effectors divert host cell signaling pathways to the benefit of the pathogen and frequently target kinase signaling cascades. Notable pathways that are usurped include the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt, and p21-activated kinase (PAK) pathways. Analyzing the functions of pathogenic effectors and their intersection with host kinase pathways has provided interesting insights into both the mechanisms of virulence and eukaryotic signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Marie Krachler
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
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14
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Cui J, Shao F. Biochemistry and cell signaling taught by bacterial effectors. Trends Biochem Sci 2011; 36:532-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2011.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2011] [Revised: 07/08/2011] [Accepted: 07/18/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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15
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A Yersinia effector with enhanced inhibitory activity on the NF-κB pathway activates the NLRP3/ASC/caspase-1 inflammasome in macrophages. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002026. [PMID: 21533069 PMCID: PMC3080847 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 02/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A type III secretion system (T3SS) in pathogenic Yersinia
species functions to translocate Yop effectors, which modulate cytokine
production and regulate cell death in macrophages. Distinct pathways of
T3SS-dependent cell death and caspase-1 activation occur in
Yersinia-infected macrophages. One pathway of cell death
and caspase-1 activation in macrophages requires the effector YopJ. YopJ is an
acetyltransferase that inactivates MAPK kinases and IKKβ to cause
TLR4-dependent apoptosis in naïve macrophages. A YopJ isoform in Y.
pestis KIM (YopJKIM) has two amino acid substitutions,
F177L and K206E, not present in YopJ proteins of Y.
pseudotuberculosis and Y. pestis CO92. As compared
to other YopJ isoforms, YopJKIM causes increased apoptosis, caspase-1
activation, and secretion of IL-1β in Yersinia-infected
macrophages. The molecular basis for increased apoptosis and activation of
caspase-1 by YopJKIM in Yersinia-infected
macrophages was studied. Site directed mutagenesis showed that the F177L and
K206E substitutions in YopJKIM were important for enhanced apoptosis,
caspase-1 activation, and IL-1β secretion. As compared to
YopJCO92, YopJKIM displayed an enhanced capacity to
inhibit phosphorylation of IκB-α in macrophages and to bind IKKβ in
vitro. YopJKIM also showed a moderately increased ability to inhibit
phosphorylation of MAPKs. Increased caspase-1 cleavage and IL-1β secretion
occurred in IKKβ-deficient macrophages infected with Y.
pestis expressing YopJCO92, confirming that the
NF-κB pathway can negatively regulate inflammasome activation.
K+ efflux, NLRP3 and ASC were important for secretion of
IL-1β in response to Y. pestis KIM infection as shown using
macrophages lacking inflammasome components or by the addition of exogenous KCl.
These data show that caspase-1 is activated in naïve macrophages in
response to infection with a pathogen that inhibits IKKβ and MAPK kinases
and induces TLR4-dependent apoptosis. This pro-inflammatory form of apoptosis
may represent an early innate immune response to highly virulent pathogens such
as Y. pestis KIM that have evolved an enhanced ability to
inhibit host signaling pathways. Pathogenic bacteria in the genus Yersinia use multiple virulence
determinants to counteract innate immunity and facilitate infection. A type III
system in Yersinia translocates an effector called YopJ that
elicits cell death in macrophages. YopJ inhibits the production of survival
factors in naïve macrophages, causing them to die by apoptosis, which is
generally considered to be immunologically silent. However, recent studies show
that caspase-1, a key regulator of pro-inflammatory responses, is activated in
Yersinia-infected macrophages undergoing apoptosis. How
caspase-1 is activated during YopJ-induced macrophage apoptosis is not known. We
have identified a distinct isoform of YopJ in Y. pestis
(YopJKIM) that induces high levels of apoptosis and caspase-1
activation in infected macrophages. In this study, the molecular basis for the
increased activity of YopJKIM was studied with the goal of better
understanding the underlying mechanism of caspase-1 activation. The data show
that YopJKIM has two amino acid changes that give it an enhanced
ability to inhibit survival signals in macrophages. The increased apoptosis may
cause membrane permeability, resulting in efflux of ions and activation of
caspase-1. Therefore, apoptosis of naïve macrophages inflicted by highly
virulent pathogens may not be immunologically silent.
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16
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Unifying themes in microbial associations with animal and plant hosts described using the gene ontology. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2011; 74:479-503. [PMID: 21119014 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00017-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbes form intimate relationships with hosts (symbioses) that range from mutualism to parasitism. Common microbial mechanisms involved in a successful host association include adhesion, entry of the microbe or its effector proteins into the host cell, mitigation of host defenses, and nutrient acquisition. Genes associated with these microbial mechanisms are known for a broad range of symbioses, revealing both divergent and convergent strategies. Effective comparisons among these symbioses, however, are hampered by inconsistent descriptive terms in the literature for functionally similar genes. Bioinformatic approaches that use homology-based tools are limited to identifying functionally similar genes based on similarities in their sequences. An effective solution to these limitations is provided by the Gene Ontology (GO), which provides a standardized language to describe gene products from all organisms. The GO comprises three ontologies that enable one to describe the molecular function(s) of gene products, the biological processes to which they contribute, and their cellular locations. Beginning in 2004, the Plant-Associated Microbe Gene Ontology (PAMGO) interest group collaborated with the GO consortium to extend the GO to accommodate terms for describing gene products associated with microbe-host interactions. Currently, over 900 terms that describe biological processes common to diverse plant- and animal-associated microbes are incorporated into the GO database. Here we review some unifying themes common to diverse host-microbe associations and illustrate how the new GO terms facilitate a standardized description of the gene products involved. We also highlight areas where new terms need to be developed, an ongoing process that should involve the whole community.
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17
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Tipping the balance by manipulating post-translational modifications. Curr Opin Microbiol 2010; 13:34-40. [PMID: 20071215 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2009.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2009] [Revised: 12/01/2009] [Accepted: 12/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria use a variety of mechanisms during infection to ensure their survival including the delivery of virulence factors via a type III secretion system into the infected cell. The factors exhibit diverse activities that in many cases mimic eukaryotic mechanisms used by the host to defend against infection. Herein we describe a class of effectors that use post-translational modifications, some reversible and others irreversible, to manipulate host signaling systems to subvert the host response.
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18
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Romano RA, Kannan N, Kornev AP, Allison CJ, Taylor SS. A chimeric mechanism for polyvalent trans-phosphorylation of PKA by PDK1. Protein Sci 2009; 18:1486-97. [PMID: 19530248 DOI: 10.1002/pro.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Phosphorylation on the activation loop of AGC kinases is typically mediated by PDK1. The precise mechanism for this in-trans phosphorylation is unknown; however, docking of a hydrophobic (HF) motif in the C-tail of the substrate kinase onto the N-lobe of PDK1 is likely an essential step. Using a peptide array of PKA to identify other PDK1-interacting sites, we discovered a second AGC-conserved motif in the C-tail that interacts with PDK1. Since this motif [FD(X)(1-2)Y/F] lies in the active site tether region and in PKA contributes to ATP binding, we call it the Adenosine binding (Ade) motif. The Ade motif is conserved as a PDK1-interacting site in Akt and PRK2, and we predict it will be a PDK1-interacting site for most AGC kinases. In PKA, the HF motif is only recognized when the turn motif Ser338 is phosphorylated, possibly serving as a phosphorylation "switch" that regulates how the Ade and HF motifs interact with PDK1. These results demonstrate that the extended AGC C-tail serves as a polyvalent element that trans-regulates PDK1 for catalysis. Modeling of the PKA C-tail onto PDK1 structure creates two chimeric sites; the ATP binding pocket, which is completed by the Ade motif, and the C-helix, which is positioned by the HF motif. Together, they demonstrate substrate-assisted catalysis involving two kinases that have co-evolved as symbiotic partners. The highly regulated turn motifs are the most variable part of the AGC C-tail. Elucidating the highly regulated cis and trans functions of the AGC tail is a significant future challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Romano
- Department of Chemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0654, USA
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Pandey AK, Sodhi A. Recombinant YopJ induces apoptosis in murine peritoneal macrophages in vitro: involvement of mitochondrial death pathway. Int Immunol 2009; 21:1239-49. [PMID: 19736292 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxp086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Yersinia species during infection adhere to host immune cells primarily to macrophages and employ its secretary proteins known as Yersinia outer proteins to trigger death in infected cells. In the present study, it is shown that recombinant Yersinia outer protein J (rYopJ) could induce apoptosis in murine peritoneal macrophages in vitro as assessed by morphological features, internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, change in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) (Deltapsim), activation of caspases and Annexin V binding. rYopJ-induced cell death was dose and time dependent. Pre-treatment with broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK, caspase-3 inhibitor Ac-DEVD-CHO and caspase-8 inhibitor Z-IETD-FMK prevented the change in MMP and DNA fragmentation, suggesting caspase-dependent apoptosis of rYopJ-treated macrophages. Blocking the endocytosis by pre-treatment of cells with cytochalasin B did not prevent the rYopJ-induced macrophages apoptosis. The data further suggest that rYopJ-induced apoptosis is mediated by molecules upstream of caspase-8 and relay through mitochondrial pathway involving Bax, Bcl-2, activation of caspase-8 and caspase-3, Bid and polyadenosine diphosphate-ribose polymerase cleavage, cytochrome c release and DNA fragmentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok Kumar Pandey
- School of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Sun J. Pathogenic Bacterial Proteins and their Anti-Inflammatory Effects in the Eukaryotic Host. Antiinflamm Antiallergy Agents Med Chem 2009; 8:214-227. [PMID: 20090866 DOI: 10.2174/187152309789151986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria use multiple strategies to bypass the inflammatory responses in order to survive in the host cells. In this review, we discuss the mechanism of the bacerial proteins in inhibiting inflammation. We highlight the anti-inflammatory roles of the type three secretion proteins including Salmonella AvrA, Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Cif, and Yersinia YopJ, Staphylococcus aureus extracellular adherence protein, and Chlamydia proteins. We also discuss the research progress on the structures of these anti-inflammatory bacterial proteins. The current therapeutic methods for diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, sclerosis, lack influence on the course of chronic inflammation and infection. Therefore, based on the molecular mechanism of the anti-inflammatory bacterial proteins and their 3-Dimension structure, we can design new peptides or non-peptidic molecules that serve as anti-inflammatory drugs without the possible side effect of promoting bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Sun
- Department of Medicine, Gastroenterology & Hepatology Division and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, New York 14642, USA
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Matsumoto H, Young GM. Translocated effectors of Yersinia. Curr Opin Microbiol 2009; 12:94-100. [PMID: 19185531 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2008.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2008] [Revised: 12/09/2008] [Accepted: 12/10/2008] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Currently, all known translocated effectors of Yersinia are delivered into host cells by type III secretion systems (T3SSs). Pathogenic Yersinia maintain the plasmid-encoded Ysc T3SS for the specific delivery of the well-studied Yop effectors. New horizons for effector biology have opened with the discovery of the Ysps of Y. enterocolitica Biovar 1B, which are translocated into host cells by the chromosome-endoded Ysa T3SS. The reported arsenal of effectors is likely to expand since genomic analysis has revealed gene-clusters in some Yersinia that code for other T3SSs. These efforts also revealed possible type VI secretion (T6S) systems, which may indicate that translocation of effectors occurs by multiple mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Matsumoto
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Robert Mondavi South Laboratory Building, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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22
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Curak J, Rohde J, Stagljar I. Yeast as a tool to study bacterial effectors. Curr Opin Microbiol 2009; 12:18-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2008.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2008] [Revised: 11/25/2008] [Accepted: 11/26/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Y4lO of Rhizobium sp. strain NGR234 is a symbiotic determinant required for symbiosome differentiation. J Bacteriol 2008; 191:735-46. [PMID: 19060155 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01404-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Type 3 (T3) effector proteins, secreted by nitrogen-fixing rhizobia with a bacterial T3 secretion system, affect the nodulation of certain host legumes. The open reading frame y4lO of Rhizobium sp. strain NGR234 encodes a protein with sequence similarities to T3 effectors from pathogenic bacteria (the YopJ effector family). Transcription studies showed that the promoter activity of y4lO depended on the transcriptional activator TtsI. Recombinant Y4lO protein expressed in Escherichia coli did not acetylate two representative mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (human MKK6 and MKK1 from Medicago truncatula), indicating that YopJ-like proteins differ with respect to their substrate specificities. The y4lO gene was mutated in NGR234 (strain NGROmegay4lO) and in NGR Omega nopL, a mutant that does not produce the T3 effector NopL (strain NGR Omega nopLOmegay4lO). When used as inoculants, the symbiotic properties of the mutants differed. Tephrosia vogelii, Phaseolus vulgaris cv. Yudou No. 1, and Vigna unguiculata cv. Sui Qing Dou Jiao formed pink effective nodules with NGR234 and NGR Omega nopL Omega y4lO. Nodules induced by NGR Omega y4lO were first pink but rapidly turned greenish (ineffective nodules), indicating premature senescence. An ultrastructural analysis of the nodules induced by NGR Omega y4lO revealed abnormal formation of enlarged infection droplets in ineffective nodules, whereas symbiosomes harboring a single bacteroid were frequently observed in effective nodules induced by NGR234 or NGR Omega nopL Omega y4lO. It is concluded that Y4lO is a symbiotic determinant involved in the differentiation of symbiosomes. Y4lO mitigated senescence-inducing effects caused by the T3 effector NopL, suggesting synergistic effects for Y4lO and NopL in nitrogen-fixing nodules.
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Whalen M, Richter T, Zakhareyvich K, Yoshikawa M, Al-Azzeh D, Adefioye A, Spicer G, Mendoza LL, Morales CQ, Klassen V, Perez-Baron G, Toebe CS, Tzovolous A, Gerstman E, Evans E, Thompson C, Lopez M, Ronald PC. Identification of a host 14-3-3 Protein that Interacts with Xanthomonas effector AvrRxv. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2008; 72:46-55. [PMID: 21796232 PMCID: PMC3142867 DOI: 10.1016/j.pmpp.2008.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
AvrRxv is a member of a family of pathogen effectors present in pathogens of both plant and mammalian species. Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria strains carrying AvrRxv induce a hypersensitive response (HR) in the tomato cultivar Hawaii 7998. Using a yeast two-hybrid screen, we identified a 14-3-3 protein from tomato that interacts with AvrRxv called AvrRxv Interactor 1 (ARI1). The interaction was confirmed in vitro with affinity chromatography. Using mutagenesis, we identified a 14-3-3-binding domain in AvrRxv and demonstrated that a mutant in that domain showed concomitant loss of interaction with ARI1 and HR-inducing activity in tomato. These results demonstrate that the AvrRxv bacterial effector recruits 14-3-3 proteins for its function within host cells. AvrRxv homologues YopP and YopJ from Yersinia do not have AvrRxv-specific HR-inducing activity when delivered into tomato host cells by Agrobacterium. Although YopP itself cannot induce HR, its C-terminal domain containing the catalytic residues can replace that of AvrRxv in an AvrRxv-YopP chimera for HR-inducing activity. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that the sequences encoding the C-termini of family members are evolving independently from those encoding the N-termini. Our results support a model in which there are three functional domains in proteins of the family, translocation, interaction, and catalytic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen Whalen
- Crop Improvement and Utilization Unit, Western Regional Research Center, ARS USDA, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, US
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
- Corresponding author. Crop Improvement and Utilization Unit, Western Regional Research Center, ARS USDA, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, USA. Tel.: +1 510 559 5950; fax: + 1 510 559 5818. (M.C. Whalen), (P.C. Ronald)
| | - Todd Richter
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California at Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis CA 95616, USA
| | - Kseniya Zakhareyvich
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Masayasu Yoshikawa
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Dana Al-Azzeh
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Adeshola Adefioye
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Greg Spicer
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Laura L. Mendoza
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Christine Q. Morales
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Vicki Klassen
- Department of Biology, City College of San Francisco, 50 Phelan Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94112, USA
| | - Gina Perez-Baron
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Carole S. Toebe
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
- Department of Biology, City College of San Francisco, 50 Phelan Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94112, USA
| | - Ageliki Tzovolous
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Emily Gerstman
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Erika Evans
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Cheryl Thompson
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Mary Lopez
- Biology Department, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Pamela C. Ronald
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California at Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis CA 95616, USA
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