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Wyatt-Johnson SK, Afify R, Brutkiewicz RR. The immune system in neurological diseases: What innate-like T cells have to say. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2024; 153:913-923. [PMID: 38365015 PMCID: PMC10999338 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2024.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
The immune system classically consists of 2 lines of defense, innate and adaptive, both of which interact with one another effectively to protect us against any pathogenic threats. Importantly, there is a diverse subset of cells known as innate-like T cells that act as a bridge between the innate and adaptive immune systems and are pivotal players in eliciting inflammatory immune responses. A growing body of evidence has demonstrated the regulatory impact of these innate-like T cells in central nervous system (CNS) diseases and that such immune cells can traffic into the brain in multiple pathological conditions, which can be typically attributed to the breakdown of the blood-brain barrier. However, until now, it has been poorly understood whether innate-like T cells have direct protective or causative properties, particularly in CNS diseases. Therefore, in this review, our attention is focused on discussing the critical roles of 3 unique subsets of unconventional T cells, namely, natural killer T cells, γδ T cells, and mucosal-associated invariant T cells, in the context of CNS diseases, disorders, and injuries and how the interplay of these immune cells modulates CNS pathology, in an attempt to gain a better understanding of their complex functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Season K Wyatt-Johnson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Ind
| | - Reham Afify
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Ind
| | - Randy R Brutkiewicz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Ind.
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2
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Tichauer JE, Arellano G, Acuña E, González LF, Kannaiyan NR, Murgas P, Panadero-Medianero C, Ibañez-Vega J, Burgos PI, Loda E, Miller SD, Rossner MJ, Gebicke-Haerter PJ, Naves R. Interferon-gamma ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inducing homeostatic adaptation of microglia. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1191838. [PMID: 37334380 PMCID: PMC10272814 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1191838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Compelling evidence has shown that interferon (IFN)-γ has dual effects in multiple sclerosis and in its animal model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), with results supporting both a pathogenic and beneficial function. However, the mechanisms whereby IFN-γ may promote neuroprotection in EAE and its effects on central nervous system (CNS)-resident cells have remained an enigma for more than 30 years. In this study, the impact of IFN-γ at the peak of EAE, its effects on CNS infiltrating myeloid cells (MC) and microglia (MG), and the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms were investigated. IFN-γ administration resulted in disease amelioration and attenuation of neuroinflammation associated with significantly lower frequencies of CNS CD11b+ myeloid cells and less infiltration of inflammatory cells and demyelination. A significant reduction in activated MG and enhanced resting MG was determined by flow cytometry and immunohistrochemistry. Primary MC/MG cultures obtained from the spinal cord of IFN-γ-treated EAE mice that were ex vivo re-stimulated with a low dose (1 ng/ml) of IFN-γ and neuroantigen, promoted a significantly higher induction of CD4+ regulatory T (Treg) cells associated with increased transforming growth factor (TGF)-β secretion. Additionally, IFN-γ-treated primary MC/MG cultures produced significantly lower nitrite in response to LPS challenge than control MC/MG. IFN-γ-treated EAE mice had a significantly higher frequency of CX3CR1high MC/MG and expressed lower levels of program death ligand 1 (PD-L1) than PBS-treated mice. Most CX3CR1highPD-L1lowCD11b+Ly6G- cells expressed MG markers (Tmem119, Sall2, and P2ry12), indicating that they represented an enriched MG subset (CX3CR1highPD-L1low MG). Amelioration of clinical symptoms and induction of CX3CR1highPD-L1low MG by IFN-γ were dependent on STAT-1. RNA-seq analyses revealed that in vivo treatment with IFN-γ promoted the induction of homeostatic CX3CR1highPD-L1low MG, upregulating the expression of genes associated with tolerogenic and anti-inflammatory roles and down-regulating pro-inflammatory genes. These analyses highlight the master role that IFN-γ plays in regulating microglial activity and provide new insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the therapeutic activity of IFN-γ in EAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan E. Tichauer
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Gabriel Arellano
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Eric Acuña
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis F. González
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Nirmal R. Kannaiyan
- Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Paola Murgas
- Center for Integrative Biology, Faculty of Science, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Jorge Ibañez-Vega
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Paula I. Burgos
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology , School of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Eileah Loda
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Stephen D. Miller
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Moritz J. Rossner
- Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Peter J. Gebicke-Haerter
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Central Institute of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Rodrigo Naves
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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NKT and NKT-like Cells in Autoimmune Neuroinflammatory Diseases-Multiple Sclerosis, Myasthenia Gravis and Guillain-Barre Syndrome. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22179520. [PMID: 34502425 PMCID: PMC8431671 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
NKT cells comprise three subsets—type I (invariant, iNKT), type II, and NKT-like cells, of which iNKT cells are the most studied subset. They are capable of rapid cytokine production after the initial stimulus, thus they may be important for polarisation of Th cells. Due to this, they may be an important cell subset in autoimmune diseases. In the current review, we are summarising results of NKT-oriented studies in major neurological autoimmune diseases—multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, and Guillain-Barre syndrome and their corresponding animal models.
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Abstract
Aim: Expression of PD-1 on T/B cells regulates peripheral tolerance and autoimmunity. Binding of PD-1 to its ligand, PD-L1, leads to protection against self-reactivity. In contrary, tumor cells have evolved immune escape mechanisms whereby overexpression of PD-L1 induces anergy and/or apoptosis of PD-1 positive T cells by interfering with T cell receptor signal transduction. PD-L1 and PD-1 blockade using antibodies are in human clinical trials as an alternative cancer treatment modality. Areas covered: We describe the role of PD-1/PD-L1 in disease in the context of autoimmunity, neurological disorders, stroke and cancer. Conclusion: For immunotherapy/vaccines to be successful, the expression of PD-L1/PD-1 on immune cells should be considered, and the combination of checkpoint inhibitors and vaccines may pave the way for successful outcomes to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nyanbol Kuol
- Centre for Chronic Disease, College of Health & Biomedicine, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14426, Melbourne VIC 8001, Australia
| | - Lily Stojanovska
- Centre for Chronic Disease, College of Health & Biomedicine, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14426, Melbourne VIC 8001, Australia
| | - Kulmira Nurgali
- Centre for Chronic Disease, College of Health & Biomedicine, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14426, Melbourne VIC 8001, Australia
| | - Vasso Apostolopoulos
- Centre for Chronic Disease, College of Health & Biomedicine, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14426, Melbourne VIC 8001, Australia
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Waisman A, Lukas D, Clausen BE, Yogev N. Dendritic cells as gatekeepers of tolerance. Semin Immunopathol 2017; 39:153-163. [PMID: 27456849 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-016-0583-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DC) are unique hematopoietic cells, linking innate and adaptive immune responses. In particular, they are considered as the most potent antigen presenting cells, governing both T cell immunity and tolerance. In view of their exceptional ability to present antigen and to interact with T cells, DC play distinct roles in shaping T cell development, differentiation and function. The outcome of the DC-T cell interaction is determined by the state of DC maturation, the type of DC subset, the cytokine microenvironment and the tissue location. Both regulatory T cells (Tregs) and DC are indispensable for maintaining central and peripheral tolerance. Over the past decade, accumulating data indicate that DC critically contribute to Treg differentiation and homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ari Waisman
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Dominika Lukas
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Department of Microbiology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Björn E Clausen
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Nir Yogev
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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6
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Changes in expression of genes involved in antitumor immunity in mice vaccinated with tumor vaccine composed of irradiated syngeneic tumor cells and CpG oligodeoxynucleotides. Mol Immunol 2016; 79:1-13. [PMID: 27677155 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2016.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Revised: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
In our previous studies, it has been demonstrated that in more than 80% of mice long-lasting antitumor immunity has been established following intraperitoneal (i.p.) vaccination with tumor vaccine composed of irradiated syngeneic tumor cells and CpG ODNs class C. The aim of this study was, therefore, to investigate molecular mechanisms through which this vaccine triggers the immunity and to define genes particularly involved in this process. Changes in gene expression were followed in mononuclear cells isolated from peritoneal lavages, spleens and bone marrow samples. The expression of 84 genes significant for T-cell and B-cell activation as well as genes engaged in activation of macrophages, NK cells and DCs was determined using the RT2- Profiler PCR array. It has been observed that this tumor vaccine induces the up-regulation of genes involved in activation, proliferation and survival of memory T-cells (Cd8a, Cd8b1, Prlr, Was, Cxcl12, Il12, Sftpd, Tnfrsf13c, Il15, Il18), and prevents the activation of genes involved in generation of Treg and induction of immune tolerance (Sit1, Sla2, Cd1d1, Pdcd1lg2, Pawr, Socs5, Il27, Il4). We may conclude based on results of gene expression analysis, that tumor vaccine fine-tunes the proportion of cytotoxic to regulatory lymphocytes having an important impact on the induction and maintenance of memory cells in bone marrow.
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Kaufman GN, Massoud AH, Dembele M, Yona M, Piccirillo CA, Mazer BD. Induction of Regulatory T Cells by Intravenous Immunoglobulin: A Bridge between Adaptive and Innate Immunity. Front Immunol 2015; 6:469. [PMID: 26441974 PMCID: PMC4566032 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) is a polyclonal immunoglobulin G preparation with potent immunomodulatory properties. The mode of action of IVIg has been investigated in multiple disease states, with various mechanisms described to account for its benefits. Recent data indicate that IVIg increases both the number and the suppressive capacity of regulatory T cells, a subpopulation of T cells that are essential for immune homeostasis. IVIg alters dendritic cell function, cytokine and chemokine networks, and T lymphocytes, leading to development of regulatory T cells. The ability of IVIg to influence Treg induction has been shown both in animal models and in human diseases. In this review, we discuss data on the potential mechanisms contributing to the interaction between IVIg and the regulatory T-cell compartment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel N Kaufman
- Translational Research in Respiratory Diseases Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre , Montreal, QC , Canada
| | - Amir H Massoud
- Translational Research in Respiratory Diseases Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre , Montreal, QC , Canada ; Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University of Montreal Hospital Research Centre , Montreal, QC , Canada
| | - Marieme Dembele
- Translational Research in Respiratory Diseases Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre , Montreal, QC , Canada
| | - Madelaine Yona
- Translational Research in Respiratory Diseases Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre , Montreal, QC , Canada
| | - Ciriaco A Piccirillo
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre , Montreal, QC , Canada
| | - Bruce D Mazer
- Translational Research in Respiratory Diseases Program, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre , Montreal, QC , Canada ; Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University , Montreal, QC , Canada
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8
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Marrero I, Ware R, Kumar V. Type II NKT Cells in Inflammation, Autoimmunity, Microbial Immunity, and Cancer. Front Immunol 2015; 6:316. [PMID: 26136748 PMCID: PMC4470258 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer T cells (NKT) recognize self and microbial lipid antigens presented by non-polymorphic CD1d molecules. Two major NKT cell subsets, type I and II, express different types of antigen receptors (TCR) with distinct mode of CD1d/lipid recognition. Though type II NKT cells are less frequent in mice and difficult to study, they are predominant in human. One of the major subsets of type II NKT cells reactive to the self-glycolipid sulfatide is the best characterized and has been shown to induce a dominant immune regulatory mechanism that controls inflammation in autoimmunity and in anti-cancer immunity. Recently, type II NKT cells reactive to other self-glycolipids and phospholipids have been identified suggesting both promiscuous and specific TCR recognition in microbial immunity as well. Since the CD1d pathway is highly conserved, a detailed understanding of the biology and function of type II NKT cells as well as their interplay with type I NKT cells or other innate and adaptive T cells will have major implications for potential novel interventions in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, microbial immunity, and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Idania Marrero
- Laboratory of Immune Regulation, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego , La Jolla, CA , USA
| | - Randle Ware
- Laboratory of Immune Regulation, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego , La Jolla, CA , USA
| | - Vipin Kumar
- Laboratory of Immune Regulation, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego , La Jolla, CA , USA
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9
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Zhao S, Li F, Leak RK, Chen J, Hu X. Regulation of Neuroinflammation through Programed Death-1/Programed Death Ligand Signaling in Neurological Disorders. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:271. [PMID: 25232304 PMCID: PMC4153295 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Immune responses in the central nervous system (CNS), which involve both resident glial cells and infiltrating peripheral immune cells, play critical roles in the progress of brain injuries and neurodegeneration. To avoid inflammatory damage to the compromised brain, the immune cell activities in the CNS are controlled by a plethora of chemical mediators and signal transduction cascades, such as inhibitory signaling through programed death-1 (PD-1) and programed death ligand (PD-L) interactions. An increasing number of recent studies have highlighted the importance of PD-1/PD-L pathway in immune regulation in CNS disorders such as ischemic stroke, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease. Here, we review the current knowledge of the impact of PD-1/PD-L signaling on brain injury and neurodegeneration. An improved understanding of the function of PD-1/PD-L in the cross-talk between peripheral immune cells, CNS glial cells, and non-immune CNS cells is expected to shed further light on immunomodulation and help develop effective and safe immunotherapies for CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangfeng Zhao
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine , Pittsburgh, PA , USA ; Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University , Beijing , China
| | - Fengwu Li
- Institute of Neuroscience, Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University , Beijing , China
| | - Rehana K Leak
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University , Pittsburgh, PA , USA
| | - Jun Chen
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine , Pittsburgh, PA , USA
| | - Xiaoming Hu
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine , Pittsburgh, PA , USA ; Institute of Neuroscience, Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University , Beijing , China
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10
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Bazhin AV, von Ahn K, Maier C, Soltek S, Serba S, Diehl L, Werner J, Karakhanova S. Immunological in vivo effects of B7-H1 deficiency. Immunol Lett 2014; 162:273-86. [PMID: 25173046 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2014.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2014] [Revised: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
B7-H1 regulatory protein, a member of the B7-H family, plays a crucial role in the modulation of immune response in healthy steady-state conditions as well as in different pathologies. B7-H1 knockout mice represent an important model to elucidate further molecular and cellular mechanisms involved, among others, in autoimmunity development and cancer progression. However, a deep immunologic characterization of this model is not complete yet. This study examined the role of B7-H1 in vivo further by direct comparison of specifically phenotyped spleen immune-cell subpopulations and their activation and naïve/memory state as well as cytokine profile in wild-type and B7-H1 knockout mice. Our results demonstrated that B7-H1 deficiency in vivo modulates several immunological parameters, including the amount and composition of Gr1(+)CD11b(+) myeloid population, the composition and activation state of the DC compartment, the frequency and status of NK and NKT cells, B-cells, naïve/memory state of CD8 T-cells and production of IL-2 and IL-10 cytokines. Moreover, we observed an increase in the PD-1 expression in the immune cells in B7-H1 knockout mice compared to the wild-type animals. Valuing the importance of B7-H1 knockout mice for their use in disease models, these data underline the role of B7-H1 in vivo also in healthy state and should be taken into account in future studies on this immunosuppressive molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandr V Bazhin
- Department of General, Visceral, and Transplant Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.
| | - Katharina von Ahn
- Department of General Surgery, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Caroline Maier
- Department of General Surgery, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sabine Soltek
- Department of General Surgery, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Susanne Serba
- Department of General Surgery, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Linda Diehl
- Institutes of Molecular Medicine, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; Institute of Experimental Immunology and Hepatology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jens Werner
- Department of General, Visceral, and Transplant Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
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Maricic I, Halder R, Bischof F, Kumar V. Dendritic cells and anergic type I NKT cells play a crucial role in sulfatide-mediated immune regulation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:1035-46. [PMID: 24973441 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1302898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
CD1d-restricted NKT cells can be divided into two groups: type I NKT cells use a semi-invariant TCR, whereas type II express a relatively diverse set of TCRs. A major subset of type II NKT cells recognizes myelin-derived sulfatides and is selectively enriched in the CNS tissue during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). We have shown that activation of sulfatide-reactive type II NKT cells by sulfatide prevents induction of EAE. In this article, we have addressed the mechanism of regulation, as well as whether a single immunodominant form of synthetic sulfatide can treat ongoing chronic and relapsing EAE in SJL/J mice. We have shown that the activation of sulfatide-reactive type II NKT cells leads to a significant reduction in the frequency and effector function of myelin proteolipid proteins 139-151/I-A(s)-tetramer(+) cells in lymphoid and CNS tissues. In addition, type I NKT cells and dendritic cells (DCs) in the periphery, as well as CNS-resident microglia, are inactivated after sulfatide administration, and mice deficient in type I NKT cells are not protected from disease. Moreover, tolerized DCs from sulfatide-treated animals can adoptively transfer protection into naive mice. Treatment of SJL/J mice with a synthetic cis-tetracosenoyl sulfatide, but not α-galactosylceramide, reverses ongoing chronic and relapsing EAE. Our data highlight a novel immune-regulatory pathway involving NKT subset interactions leading to inactivation of type I NKT cells, DCs, and microglial cells in suppression of autoimmunity. Because CD1 molecules are nonpolymorphic, the sulfatide-mediated immune-regulatory pathway can be targeted for development of non-HLA-dependent therapeutic approaches to T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Maricic
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity, Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, San Diego, CA 92121; and
| | - Ramesh Halder
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity, Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, San Diego, CA 92121; and
| | - Felix Bischof
- Department of Neurology, University of Tubingen, Tubingen D-72076, Germany
| | - Vipin Kumar
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity, Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, San Diego, CA 92121; and
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12
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Song S, Yuan P, Wu H, Chen J, Fu J, Li P, Lu J, Wei W. Dendritic cells with an increased PD-L1 by TGF-β induce T cell anergy for the cytotoxicity of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Int Immunopharmacol 2014; 20:117-23. [PMID: 24606770 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2014.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Revised: 01/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The effects of TGF-β on dendritic cells (DCs) in the tumor microenvironment are not well-understood. In this study, we investigated the effect of TGF-β on the induction of programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) expression in DCs and the underlying mechanism, and we further investigated the influence of the DCs with PD-L1 expression altered by TGF-β on T-cell immunity. We determined that TGF-β increased the expression of PD-L1 and signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3) in DCs in both a time- and dose-dependent manner, and the expression of PD-L1 was decreased significantly after STAT3 blockade. In addition, TGF-β-treated DCs induced the apoptosis of T cells and increased the percentage of CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs). Furthermore, the cytotoxicity of T cells against mice hepatocellular carcinoma cells (Hepa) was obviously suppressed. These results suggest that PD-L1 may play an important role in TGF-β-induced immune dysfunction, which finally results in a failure in the anti-tumor responses, and the TGF-β-STAT3-PD-L1 signaling pathway may contribute to novel therapeutic targets for the tumor based on DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shasha Song
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Antiinflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Pingfan Yuan
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Antiinflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Huaxun Wu
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Antiinflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Jingyu Chen
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Antiinflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Jingjing Fu
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Antiinflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Peipei Li
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Antiinflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Jingtao Lu
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Antiinflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Hefei 230032, PR China.
| | - Wei Wei
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Antiinflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Hefei 230032, PR China.
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13
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Terabe M, Berzofsky JA. The immunoregulatory role of type I and type II NKT cells in cancer and other diseases. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2014; 63:199-213. [PMID: 24384834 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-013-1509-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
NKT cells are CD1d-restricted T cells that recognize lipid antigens. They also have been shown to play critical roles in the regulation of immune responses. In the immune responses against tumors, two subsets of NKT cells, type I and type II, play opposing roles and cross-regulate each other. As members of both the innate and adaptive immune systems, which form a network of multiple components, they also interact with other immune components. Here, we discuss the function of NKT cells in tumor immunity and their interaction with other regulatory cells, especially CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Terabe
- Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Building 41-Room D702, 41 Medlars Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA,
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Li M, Jiang J, Fu B, Chen J, Xue Q, Dong W, Gu Y, Tang L, Xue L, Fang Q, Wang M, Zhang X. PD-L1 is increased in the spinal cord and infiltrating lymphocytes in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Neural Regen Res 2013; 8:3296-305. [PMID: 25206651 PMCID: PMC4145942 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2013.35.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis is a mouse model of human multiple sclerosis with similar pathology and pathogenesis. Th1 cells play an important role in the pathogenesis of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. This study determined the potential effect of programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 in the pathogenesis of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis induced by injecting myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, complete Freund's adjuvant and Bordetella pertussis toxin into C57BL/6J mice. Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis mice developed disease and showed inflammatory changes in the central nervous system by hematoxylin-eosin staining of spinal cord pathological sections, demyelination by Luxol fast-blue staining and clinical manifestations. The expression of programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 in mice was detected by immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry and western blot analysis. The expression of programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 in the spinal cord and splenocytes of mice was significantly increased compared with normal mice. Our findings suggest the involvement of programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 in the pathogenesis of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis and suggest this should be studied in multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- Department of Neurology, Second People's Hospital of Lianyungang City, Lianyungang 222006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jiandong Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Second People's Hospital of Lianyungang City, Lianyungang 222006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Bing Fu
- Department of Neurology, Second People's Hospital of Lianyungang City, Lianyungang 222006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jiechun Chen
- Department of Neurology, Second People's Hospital of Lianyungang City, Lianyungang 222006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Qun Xue
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, Jiangsu Province, China ; Institute of Clinical Immunology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Wanli Dong
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, Jiangsu Province, China ; Institute of Clinical Immunology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yanzheng Gu
- Institute of Clinical Immunology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Lingtao Tang
- Department of Neurology, Third Hospital of Xingtai City, Xingtai 054000, Hebei Province, China
| | - Limin Xue
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Qi Fang
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Mingyuan Wang
- Red-Cross Blood Center of Suzhou City, Suzhou 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xueguang Zhang
- Institute of Clinical Immunology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
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15
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PTEN functions as a melanoma tumor suppressor by promoting host immune response. Oncogene 2013; 33:4632-42. [PMID: 24141770 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2013.409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2013] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cancer cells acquire several traits that allow for their survival and progression, including the ability to evade the host immune response. However, the mechanisms by which cancer cells evade host immune responses remain largely elusive. Here we study the phenomena of immune evasion in malignant melanoma cells. We find that the tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) is an important regulator of the host immune response against melanoma cells. Mechanistically, PTEN represses the expression of immunosuppressive cytokines by blocking the phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway. In melanoma cells lacking PTEN, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 activates the transcription of immunosuppressive cytokines in a PI3K-dependent manner. Furthermore, conditioned media from PTEN-deficient, patient-derived short-term melanoma cultures and established melanoma cell lines blocked the production of the interleukin-12 (IL-12) in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Inhibition of IL-12 production was rescued by restoring PTEN or using neutralizing antibodies against the immunosuppressive cytokines. Furthermore, we report that PTEN, as an alternative mechanism to promote the host immune response against cancer cells, represses the expression of programmed cell death 1 ligand, a known repressor of the host immune response. Finally, to establish the clinical significance of our results, we analyzed malignant melanoma patient samples with or without brisk host responses. These analyses confirmed that PTEN loss is associated with a higher percentage of malignant melanoma samples with non-brisk host responses compared with samples with brisk host responses. Collectively, these results establish that PTEN functions as a melanoma tumor suppressor in part by regulating the host immune response against melanoma cells and highlight the importance of assessing PTEN status before recruiting melanoma patients for immunotherapies.
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16
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Rhost S, Sedimbi S, Kadri N, Cardell SL. Immunomodulatory type II natural killer T lymphocytes in health and disease. Scand J Immunol 2012; 76:246-55. [PMID: 22724893 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2012.02750.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer T (NKT) lymphocytes are αβ T cells activated by lipid-based ligands presented on the non-polymorphic CD1d-molecule. Type I NKT cells that carry an invariant Vα14 (in the mouse) or Vα24 (in humans) T cell receptor α-chain rearrangement have received significant attention for their involvement in a diversity of immune reactions. Their sister population, CD1d-restricted type II NKT cells, has been more difficult to study because of the lack of molecular markers that specify these cells. In the last few years, however, significant progress has been made, demonstrating that type II NKT cells have unique functions in immune responses to tumours and infections, in autoimmunity, obesity and graft-versus-host disease. Type II NKT cells appear more frequent than type I NKT cells in humans and accumulate in certain diseases such as ulcerative colitis, hepatitis and multiple myeloma. Recently, novel type II NKT cell ligands have been identified, and it is becoming clear that the type II NKT cell population may be oligoclonal. Here, we review the recent progress in the study of type II NKT cells, supporting the view that type II NKT cells may be attractive targets for immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Rhost
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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17
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Li L, Huang L, Ye H, Song SP, Bajwa A, Lee SJ, Moser EK, Jaworska K, Kinsey GR, Day YJ, Linden J, Lobo PI, Rosin DL, Okusa MD. Dendritic cells tolerized with adenosine A₂AR agonist attenuate acute kidney injury. J Clin Invest 2012; 122:3931-42. [PMID: 23093781 DOI: 10.1172/jci63170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 08/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
DC-mediated NKT cell activation is critical in initiating the immune response following kidney ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI), which mimics human acute kidney injury (AKI). Adenosine is an important antiinflammatory molecule in tissue inflammation, and adenosine 2A receptor (A₂AR) agonists protect kidneys from IRI through their actions on leukocytes. In this study, we showed that mice with A₂AR-deficient DCs are more susceptible to kidney IRI and are not protected from injury by A₂AR agonists. In addition, administration of DCs treated ex vivo with an A₂AR agonist protected the kidneys of WT mice from IRI by suppressing NKT production of IFN-γ and by regulating DC costimulatory molecules that are important for NKT cell activation. A₂AR agonists had no effect on DC antigen presentation or on Tregs. We conclude that ex vivo A₂AR-induced tolerized DCs suppress NKT cell activation in vivo and provide a unique and potent cell-based strategy to attenuate organ IRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.
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18
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Lutz MB. Therapeutic potential of semi-mature dendritic cells for tolerance induction. Front Immunol 2012; 3:123. [PMID: 22629255 PMCID: PMC3355325 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are major players in the control of adaptive tolerance and immunity. Therefore, their specific generation and adoptive transfer into patients or their in vivo targeting is attractive for clinical applications. While injections of mature immunogenic DCs are tested in clinical trials, tolerogenic DCs still are awaiting this step. Besides the tolerogenic potential of immature DCs, also semi-mature DCs can show tolerogenic activity but both types also bear unfavorable features. Optimal tolerogenic DCs, their molecular tool bar, and their use for specific diseases still have to be defined. Here, the usefulness of in vitro generated and adoptively transferred semi-mature DCs for tolerance induction is outlined. The in vivo targeting of semi-mature DCs as represented by steady state migratory DCs are discussed for treatment of autoimmune diseases and allergies. First clinical trials with transcutaneous allergen application may point to their therapeutic use in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred B Lutz
- Institute of Virology and Immunobiology, University of Wuerzburg Wuerzburg, Germany
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19
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Kadri N, Korpos E, Gupta S, Briet C, Löfbom L, Yagita H, Lehuen A, Boitard C, Holmberg D, Sorokin L, Cardell SL. CD4(+) type II NKT cells mediate ICOS and programmed death-1-dependent regulation of type 1 diabetes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 188:3138-49. [PMID: 22371394 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1101390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic autoimmune disease that results from T cell-mediated destruction of pancreatic β cells. CD1d-restricted NKT lymphocytes have the ability to regulate immunity, including autoimmunity. We previously demonstrated that CD1d-restricted type II NKT cells, which carry diverse TCRs, prevented T1D in the NOD mouse model for the human disease. In this study, we show that CD4(+) 24αβ type II NKT cells, but not CD4/CD8 double-negative NKT cells, were sufficient to downregulate diabetogenic CD4(+) BDC2.5 NOD T cells in adoptive transfer experiments. CD4(+) 24αβ NKT cells exhibited a memory phenotype including high ICOS expression, increased cytokine production, and limited display of NK cell markers, compared with double-negative 24αβ NKT cells. Blocking of ICOS or the programmed death-1/programmed death ligand 1 pathway was shown to abolish the regulation that occurred in the pancreas draining lymph nodes. To our knowledge, these results provide for the first time cellular and molecular information on how type II CD1d-restricted NKT cells regulate T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadir Kadri
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, S-405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
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20
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Pletinckx K, Stijlemans B, Pavlovic V, Laube R, Brandl C, Kneitz S, Beschin A, De Baetselier P, Lutz MB. Similar inflammatory DC maturation signatures induced by TNF or Trypanosoma brucei antigens instruct default Th2-cell responses. Eur J Immunol 2011; 41:3479-94. [PMID: 21928284 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201141631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Revised: 07/20/2011] [Accepted: 09/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
DCs represent the major cell type leading to polarized T-helper (Th) cell responses in vivo. Here, we asked whether the instruction of murine Th2 responses by DCs matured with the proinflammatory cytokine TNF is qualitatively different from maturation by different types of TLR4/MyD88-dependent variant-specific surface glycoproteins (VSGs) of Trypanosoma brucei (T. brucei). The results obtained by analyzing DC surface markers, Notch ligand mRNA, cytokines, asthma, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) models as well as performing microarrays indicate that both types of stimuli induce similar inflammatory, semi-mature DC profiles. DCs matured by TNF or VSG treatment expressed a common inflammatory signature of 24 genes correlating with their Th2-polarization capacity. However, the same 24 genes and 4498 additional genes were expressed by DCs treated with LPS that went on to induce Th1 cells. These findings support the concept of a default pathway for Th2-cell induction in DCs matured under suboptimal or inflammatory conditions, independent of the surface receptors and signaling pathways involved. Our data also indicate that quantitative differences in DC maturation might direct Th2- vs Th1-cell responses, since suboptimally matured inflammatory DCs induce default Th2-cell maturation, whereas fully mature DCs induce Th1-cell maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrien Pletinckx
- Institute of Virology and Immunobiology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
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21
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Subleski JJ, Jiang Q, Weiss JM, Wiltrout RH. The split personality of NKT cells in malignancy, autoimmune and allergic disorders. Immunotherapy 2011; 3:1167-84. [PMID: 21995570 PMCID: PMC3230042 DOI: 10.2217/imt.11.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
NKT cells are a heterogeneous subset of specialized, self-reactive T cells, with innate and adaptive immune properties, which allow them to bridge innate and adaptive immunity and profoundly influence autoimmune and malignant disease outcomes. NKT cells mediate these activities through their ability to rapidly express pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines that influence the type and magnitude of the immune response. Not only do NKT cells regulate the functions of other cell types, but experimental evidence has found NKT cell subsets can modulate the functions of other NKT subsets. Depending on underlying mechanisms, NKT cells can inhibit or exacerbate autoimmunity and malignancy, making them potential targets for disease intervention. NKT cells can respond to foreign and endogenous antigenic glycolipid signals that are expressed during pathogenic invasion or ongoing inflammation, respectively, allowing them to rapidly react to and influence a broad array of diseases. In this article we review the unique development and activation pathways of NKT cells and focus on how these attributes augment or exacerbate autoimmune disorders and malignancy. We also examine the growing evidence that NKT cells are involved in liver inflammatory conditions that can contribute to the development of malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff J Subleski
- Laboratory of Experimental, Immunology, Cancer & Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Qun Jiang
- Laboratory of Experimental, Immunology, Cancer & Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Jonathan M Weiss
- Laboratory of Experimental, Immunology, Cancer & Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Robert H Wiltrout
- Laboratory of Experimental, Immunology, Cancer & Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
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22
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Pletinckx K, Döhler A, Pavlovic V, Lutz MB. Role of dendritic cell maturity/costimulation for generation, homeostasis, and suppressive activity of regulatory T cells. Front Immunol 2011; 2:39. [PMID: 22566829 PMCID: PMC3342346 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2011.00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2011] [Accepted: 08/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tolerogenicity of dendritic cells (DCs) has initially been attributed exclusively to immature/resting stages, while mature/activated DCs were considered strictly immunogenic. Later, all different subsets among the myeloid/conventional DCs and plasmacytoid DCs have been shown to bear tolerogenic potential, so that tolerogenicity could not be attributed to a specific subset. Immunosuppressive treatments of immature DC subsets could prevent re-programming into mature DCs or upregulated inhibitory surface markers or cytokines. Furthermore, the different T cell tolerance mechanisms anergy, deletion, immune deviation, and suppression require different quantities and qualities of costimulation by DCs. Since expansion of regulatory T cells (Tregs) has been shown to be promoted best by fully mature DCs the role of CD80/B7-1 and CD86/B7-2 as major costimulatory molecules for Treg biology is under debate. In this review, we discuss the role of these and other costimulatory molecules on myeloid DCs and their ligands CD28 and CD152/CTLA-4 on Tregs for peripheral conversion from naive CD4+ T cells into the major subsets of Foxp3+ Tregs and Foxp3− IL-10+ regulatory type-1 T cells (Tr1) or Tr1-like cells and their role for peripheral maintenance in the steady state and after activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrien Pletinckx
- Institute of Virology and Immunobiology, University of Wuerzburg Wuerzburg, Germany
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