The expression of vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor 1 is negatively modulated by microRNA 525-5p

Exploring the role of exosomal MicroRNAs as potential biomarkers in preeclampsia

The complex pathogenesis of preeclampsia (PE), a significant contributor to maternal and neonatal mortality globally, is poorly understood despite substantial research. This review explores the involvement of exosomal microRNAs (exomiRs) in PE, focusing on their impact on the protein kinase B (AKT)/hypoxia-inducible factor 1-α (HIF1α)/vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling pathway as well as endothelial cell proliferation and migration. Specifically, this article amalgamates existing evidence to reveal the pivotal role of exomiRs in regulating mesenchymal stem cell and trophoblast function, placental angiogenesis, the renin-angiotensin system, and nitric oxide production, which may contribute to PE etiology. This review emphasizes the limited knowledge regarding the role of exomiRs in PE while underscoring the potential of exomiRs as non-invasive biomarkers for PE diagnosis, prediction, and treatment. Further, it provides valuable insights into the mechanisms of PE, highlighting exomiRs as key players with clinical implications, warranting further exploration to enhance the current understanding and the development of novel therapeutic interventions.

MicroRNAs as promising therapeutic agents: A perspective from acupuncture

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are gaining recognition as potential therapeutic agents due to their small size, ability to target a wide range of genes, and significant role in disease progression. However, despite their promising potential, nearly half of the miRNA drugs developed for therapeutic purposes have been discontinued or put on hold, and none have advanced to phase III clinical trials. The development of miRNA therapeutics has faced obstacles such as difficulties in validating miRNA targets, conflicting evidence regarding competition and saturation effects, challenges in miRNA delivery, and determining appropriate dosages. These hurdles primarily arise from the intricate functional complexity of miRNAs. Acupuncture, a distinct, complementary therapy, offers a promising avenue to overcome these barriers, particularly by addressing the fundamental issue of preserving functional complexity through acupuncture regulatory networks. The acupuncture regulatory network consists of three main components: the acupoint network, the neuro-endocrine-immune (NEI) network, and the disease network. These networks represent the processes of information transformation, amplification, and conduction that occur during acupuncture. Notably, miRNAs serve as essential mediators and shared biological language within these interconnected networks. Harnessing the therapeutic potential of acupuncture-derived miRNAs can help reduce the time and economic resources required for miRNA drug development and alleviate the current developmental challenges miRNA therapeutics face. This review provides an interdisciplinary perspective by summarizing the interactions between miRNAs, their targets, and the three acupuncture regulatory networks mentioned earlier. The aim is to illuminate the challenges and opportunities in developing miRNA therapeutics. This review paper presents a comprehensive overview of miRNAs, their interactions with acupuncture regulatory networks, and their potential as therapeutic agents. By bridging the miRNA research and acupuncture fields, we aim to offer valuable insights into the obstacles and prospects of developing miRNA therapeutics.

VIP/VPAC Axis Expression in Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Disorders: Associated miRNA Signatures

Few studies have considered immune-mediated inflammatory disorders (IMID) together, which is necessary to adequately understand them given they share common mechanisms. Our goal was to investigate the expression of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and its receptors VPAC1 and VPAC2 in selected IMID, analyze the effect of biological therapies on them, and identify miRNA signatures associated with their expression. Serum VIP levels and mRNA of VPAC and miRNA expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells were analyzed from 52 patients with psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, Graves’ disease, or spondyloarthritis and from 38 healthy subjects. IMID patients showed higher levels of VIP and increased expression of VPAC2 compared to controls (p < 0.0001 and p < 0.0192, respectively). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that the levels of VIP or VPAC2 expression were adequate discriminators capable of identifying IMID. Treatment of IMID patients with anti-TNFα and anti-IL12/23 significantly affected serum VIP levels. We identified miRNA signatures associated with levels of serum VIP and VPAC2 expression, which correlated with IMID diagnosis of the patients. The results indicate that the expression of VIP/VPAC2 is able of identify IMIDs and open up a line of research based on the association between the VIP/VPAC axis and miRNA signatures in immune-mediated diseases.

Exosomes as Biomarkers for Female Reproductive Diseases Diagnosis and Therapy

Cell-cell communication is an essential mechanism for the maintenance and development of various organs, including the female reproductive system. Today, it is well-known that the function of the female reproductive system and successful pregnancy are related to appropriate follicular growth, oogenesis, implantation, embryo development, and proper fertilization, dependent on the main regulators of cellular crosstalk, exosomes. During exosome synthesis, selective packaging of different factors into these vesicles happens within the originating cells. Therefore, exosomes contain both genetic and proteomic data that could be applied as biomarkers or therapeutic targets in pregnancy-associated disorders or placental functions. In this context, the present review aims to compile information about the potential exosomes with key molecular cargos that are dysregulated in female reproductive diseases which lead to infertility, including polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), premature ovarian failure (POF), Asherman syndrome, endometriosis, endometrial cancer, cervical cancer, ovarian cancer, and preeclampsia, as well as signaling pathways related to the regulation of the reproductive system and pregnancy outcome during these pathological conditions. This review might help us realize the etiology of reproductive dysfunction and improve the early diagnosis and treatment of the related complications.

Foetoplacental communication via extracellular vesicles in normal pregnancy and preeclampsia

Intercellular communication is a critical process in biological mechanisms. During pregnancy foetoplacental tissues release a heterogeneous group of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that include exosomes, microvesicles, apoptotic bodies, and syncytial nuclear aggregates. These vesicles contain a complex cargo (proteins, DNA, mRNA transcripts, microRNAs, noncoding RNA, lipids, and other molecules) that actively participate in the maternal-foetal communication by modulating different processes during gestation for a successful foetal development. Each stage of human gestation is marked by events such as immunomodulation, proliferation, invasion, migration, and differentiation, among others, requiring EVs-mediated signalling to be nearby or distant target cells. Furthermore, EVs also associate with pregnancy pathologies such as preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction. This review addresses the role of EVs in human foetomaternal communication in normal pregnancy and preeclampsia.

Role of G protein-coupled receptors-microRNA interactions in gastrointestinal pathophysiology

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) make up the largest transmembrane receptor superfamily in the human genome and are expressed in nearly all gastrointestinal cell types. Coupling of GPCRs and their respective ligands activates various phosphotransferases in the cytoplasm, and, thus, activation of GPCR signaling in intestine regulates many cellular and physiological processes. Studies in microRNAs (miRNAs) demonstrate that they represent critical epigenetic regulators of different pathophysiological responses in different organs and cell types in humans and animals. Here, we reviewed recent research on GPCR-miRNA interactions related to gastrointestinal pathophysiology, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, irritable bowel syndrome, and gastrointestinal cancers. Given that the presence of different types of cells in the gastrointestinal tract suggests the importance of cell-cell interactions in maintaining gastrointestinal homeostasis, we also discuss how GPCR-miRNA interactions regulate gene expression at the cellular level and subsequently modulate gastrointestinal pathophysiology through molecular regulatory circuits and cell-cell interactions. These studies helped identify novel molecular pathways leading to the discovery of potential biomarkers for gastrointestinal diseases.

VPAC1 receptor (Vipr1)-deficient mice exhibit ameliorated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, with specific deficits in the effector stage

BACKGROUND

Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylyl cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) are two highly homologous neuropeptides. In vitro and ex vivo experiments repeatedly demonstrate that these peptides exert pronounced immunomodulatory (primarily anti-inflammatory) actions which are mediated by common VPAC1 and VPAC2 G protein-coupled receptors. In agreement, we have shown that mice deficient in PACAP ligand or VPAC2 receptors exhibit exacerbated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). However, we observed that VIP-deficient mice are unexpectedly resistant to EAE, suggesting a requirement for this peptide at some stage of disease development. Here, we investigated the involvement of VPAC1 in the development of EAE using a VPAC1-deficient mouse model.

METHODS

EAE was induced in wild-type (WT) and VPAC1 knockout (KO) mice using myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein 35-55 (MOG35-55), and clinical scores were assessed continuously over 30 days. Immune responses in the spinal cords were determined by histology, real-time PCR and immunofluorescence, and in the draining lymph nodes by antigen-recall assays. The contribution of VPAC1 expression in the immune system to the development of EAE was evaluated by means of adoptive transfer and bone marrow chimera experiments. In other experiments, VPAC1 receptor analogs were given to WT mice.

RESULTS

MOG35-55-induced EAE was ameliorated in VPAC1 KO mice compared to WT mice. The EAE-resistant phenotype of VPAC1 KO mice correlated with reduced central nervous system (CNS) histopathology and cytokine expression in the spinal cord. The immunization phase of EAE appeared to be unimpaired because lymph node cells from EAE-induced VPAC1 KO mice stimulated in vitro with MOG exhibited robust proliferative and Th1/Th17 responses. Moreover, lymph node and spleen cells from KO mice were fully capable of inducing EAE upon transfer to WT recipients. In contrast, WT cells from MOG-immunized mice did not transfer the disease when administered to VPAC1 KO recipients, implicating a defect in the effector phase of the disease. Bone marrow chimera studies suggested that the resistance of VPAC1-deficient mice was only minimally dependent on the expression of this receptor in the immunogenic/hematopoietic compartment. Consistent with this, impaired spinal cord inductions of several chemokine mRNAs were observed in VPAC1 KO mice. Finally, treatment of WT mice with the VPAC1 receptor antagonist PG97-269 before, but not after, EAE induction mimicked the clinical phenotype of VPAC1 KO mice.

CONCLUSIONS

VPAC1 gene loss impairs the development of EAE in part by preventing an upregulation of CNS chemokines and invasion of inflammatory cells into the CNS. Use of VPAC1 antagonists in WT mice prior to EAE induction also support a critical role for VPAC1 signaling for the development of EAE.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the 3'UTR of VPAC-1 cooperate in modulating gene expression and impact differently on the interaction with miR525-5p

Complex immune and neurodegenerative disorders are the result of multiple interactions between common genetic variations having, individually, a weak effect on the disease susceptibility or resistance. Interestingly, some genes have been found to be associated with more than one disease although not necessarily the same SNPs are involved. In this context, single nucleotide polymorphisms in the 3′UTR region of type 1 receptor (VPAC-1) for vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) have been reported to be associated with some immune-mediated as well as with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Here, we demonstrate that variations at the 3′UTR of the VPAC-1 gene act synergistically to affect the expression of the luciferase as well as of the GFP reporter genes expressed in HEK293T cells. Moreover, the miRNA 525-5p, previously shown by us to target the 3′UTR of VPAC-1, is more efficient in decreasing GFP expression when co-expressed with constructs carrying the allele C at rs896 (p<10^-3) suggesting that this miRNA regulates VPAC-1 expression at different levels depending on rs896 polymorphism and thus adding complexity to the network of disease susceptibility.

MicroRNAs as Haematopoiesis Regulators

The production of different types of blood cells including their formation, development, and differentiation is collectively known as haematopoiesis. Blood cells are divided into three lineages erythriod (erythrocytes), lymphoid (B and T cells), and myeloid (granulocytes, megakaryocytes, and macrophages). Haematopoiesis is a complex process regulated by several mechanisms including microRNAs (miRNAs). miRNAs are small RNAs which regulate the expression of a number of genes involved in commitment and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells. Evidence shows that miRNAs play an important role in haematopoiesis; for example, myeloid and erythroid differentiation is blocked by the overexpression of miR-15a. miR-221, miR-222, and miR-24 inhibit the erythropoiesis, whereas miR-150 plays a role in B and T cell differentiation. miR-146 and miR-10a are downregulated in megakaryopoiesis. Aberrant expression of miRNAs was observed in hematological malignancies including chronic myelogenous leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, multiple myelomas, and B cell lymphomas. In this review we have focused on discussing the role of miRNA in haematopoiesis.

Gender-dependent association of type 2 diabetes with the vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor 1

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by an inadequate pancreatic beta-cell response to the progressive insulin resistance. Its pathogenesis is complex and has been connected with a state of preclinical chronic inflammation. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and its receptors play a relevant role in the homeostasis of insulin secretion as well as in the control of inflammation. In particular, VIP receptor 1 (VPAC1) has been found to be down-modulated during inflammation, and to be associated with several diseases. The objective of this study was to compare the distribution of SNPs mapping in the VIP receptor 1 gene in cases with type 2 diabetes and matched controls. Seven hundred cases with type 2 diabetes (423 males and 277 females) and 830 random controls (419 males and 411 females) were analyzed for the distribution of three common SNPs mapping in the VPAC1 gene. The results show a significantly different genotype distribution of the SNP rs9677 in the 3'-UTR of VPAC1 in female cases with type 2 diabetes compared to gender-matched controls (ptrend=6×10(-4)). The rs9677 CC genotype confers the highest risk (OR: 2.1) and correlates with worse clinical parameters such as higher level of total cholesterol, higher LDL/HDL ratio and a higher HbA1c concentration. The genetic association reported here indicates that VIP/VPAC1 signaling can be a relevant pathway in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes in females suggesting that at least some aspects of the genetic predisposition to this disease can be gender-specific.

Cholinesterase-Targeting microRNAs Identified in silico Affect Specific Biological Processes

MicroRNAs (miRs) have emerged as important gene silencers affecting many target mRNAs. Here, we report the identification of 244 miRs that target the 3′-untranslated regions of different cholinesterase transcripts: 116 for butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), 47 for the synaptic acetylcholinesterase (AChE-S) splice variant, and 81 for the normally rare splice variant AChE-R. Of these, 11 and 6 miRs target both AChE-S and AChE-R, and AChE-R and BChE transcripts, respectively. BChE and AChE-S showed no overlapping miRs, attesting to their distinct modes of miR regulation. Generally, miRs can suppress a number of targets; thereby controlling an entire battery of functions. To evaluate the importance of the cholinesterase-targeted miRs in other specific biological processes we searched for their other experimentally validated target transcripts and analyzed the gene ontology enriched biological processes these transcripts are involved in. Interestingly, a number of the resulting categories are also related to cholinesterases. They include, for BChE, response to glucocorticoid stimulus, and for AChE, response to wounding and two child terms of neuron development: regulation of axonogenesis and regulation of dendrite morphogenesis. Importantly, all of the AChE-targeting miRs found to be related to these selected processes were directed against the normally rare AChE-R splice variant, with three of them, including the neurogenesis regulator miR-132, also directed against AChE-S. Our findings point at the AChE-R splice variant as particularly susceptible to miR regulation, highlight those biological functions of cholinesterases that are likely to be subject to miR post-transcriptional control, demonstrate the selectivity of miRs in regulating specific biological processes, and open new venues for targeted interference with these specific processes.