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McKenna ED, Sarbanes SL, Cummings SW, Roll-Mecak A. The Tubulin Code, from Molecules to Health and Disease. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2023; 39:331-361. [PMID: 37843925 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-030123-032748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Microtubules are essential dynamic polymers composed of α/β-tubulin heterodimers. They support intracellular trafficking, cell division, cellular motility, and other essential cellular processes. In many species, both α-tubulin and β-tubulin are encoded by multiple genes with distinct expression profiles and functionality. Microtubules are further diversified through abundant posttranslational modifications, which are added and removed by a suite of enzymes to form complex, stereotyped cellular arrays. The genetic and chemical diversity of tubulin constitute a tubulin code that regulates intrinsic microtubule properties and is read by cellular effectors, such as molecular motors and microtubule-associated proteins, to provide spatial and temporal specificity to microtubules in cells. In this review, we synthesize the rapidly expanding tubulin code literature and highlight limitations and opportunities for the field. As complex microtubule arrays underlie essential physiological processes, a better understanding of how cells employ the tubulin code has important implications for human disease ranging from cancer to neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth D McKenna
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - Stephanie L Sarbanes
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - Steven W Cummings
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - Antonina Roll-Mecak
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Bhattacharjee S, Lottes EN, Nanda S, Golshir A, Patel AA, Ascoli GA, Cox DN. PP2A phosphatase regulates cell-type specific cytoskeletal organization to drive dendrite diversity. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:926567. [PMID: 36452406 PMCID: PMC9702092 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.926567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Uncovering molecular mechanisms regulating dendritic diversification is essential to understanding the formation and modulation of functional neural circuitry. Transcription factors play critical roles in promoting dendritic diversity and here, we identify PP2A phosphatase function as a downstream effector of Cut-mediated transcriptional regulation of dendrite development. Mutant analyses of the PP2A catalytic subunit (mts) or the scaffolding subunit (PP2A-29B) reveal cell-type specific regulatory effects with the PP2A complex required to promote dendritic growth and branching in Drosophila Class IV (CIV) multidendritic (md) neurons, whereas in Class I (CI) md neurons, PP2A functions in restricting dendritic arborization. Cytoskeletal analyses reveal requirements for Mts in regulating microtubule stability/polarity and F-actin organization/dynamics. In CIV neurons, mts knockdown leads to reductions in dendritic localization of organelles including mitochondria and satellite Golgi outposts, while CI neurons show increased Golgi outpost trafficking along the dendritic arbor. Further, mts mutant neurons exhibit defects in neuronal polarity/compartmentalization. Finally, genetic interaction analyses suggest β-tubulin subunit 85D is a common PP2A target in CI and CIV neurons, while FoxO is a putative target in CI neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erin N. Lottes
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Sumit Nanda
- Center for Neural Informatics, Structures, and Plasticity, Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
| | - Andre Golshir
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Atit A. Patel
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Giorgio A. Ascoli
- Center for Neural Informatics, Structures, and Plasticity, Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
| | - Daniel N. Cox
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
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Fourel G, Boscheron C. Tubulin mutations in neurodevelopmental disorders as a tool to decipher microtubule function. FEBS Lett 2020; 594:3409-3438. [PMID: 33064843 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Malformations of cortical development (MCDs) are a group of severe brain malformations associated with intellectual disability and refractory childhood epilepsy. Human missense heterozygous mutations in the 9 α-tubulin and 10 β-tubulin isoforms forming the heterodimers that assemble into microtubules (MTs) were found to cause MCDs. However, how a single mutated residue in a given tubulin isoform can perturb the entire microtubule population in a neuronal cell remains a crucial question. Here, we examined 85 MCD-associated tubulin mutations occurring in TUBA1A, TUBB2, and TUBB3 and their location in a three-dimensional (3D) microtubule cylinder. Mutations hitting residues exposed on the outer microtubule surface are likely to alter microtubule association with partners, while alteration of intradimer contacts may impair dimer stability and straightness. Other types of mutations are predicted to alter interdimer and lateral contacts, which are responsible for microtubule cohesion, rigidity, and dynamics. MCD-associated tubulin mutations surprisingly fall into all categories, thus providing unexpected insights into how a single mutation may impair microtubule function and elicit dominant effects in neurons.
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Moutin MJ, Bosc C, Peris L, Andrieux A. Tubulin post-translational modifications control neuronal development and functions. Dev Neurobiol 2020; 81:253-272. [PMID: 33325152 PMCID: PMC8246997 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Microtubules (MTs) are an essential component of the neuronal cytoskeleton; they are involved in various aspects of neuron development, maintenance, and functions including polarization, synaptic plasticity, and transport. Neuronal MTs are highly heterogeneous due to the presence of multiple tubulin isotypes and extensive post‐translational modifications (PTMs). These PTMs—most notably detyrosination, acetylation, and polyglutamylation—have emerged as important regulators of the neuronal microtubule cytoskeleton. With this review, we summarize what is currently known about the impact of tubulin PTMs on microtubule dynamics, neuronal differentiation, plasticity, and transport as well as on brain function in normal and pathological conditions, in particular during neuro‐degeneration. The main therapeutic approaches to neuro‐diseases based on the modulation of tubulin PTMs are also summarized. Overall, the review indicates how tubulin PTMs can generate a large number of functionally specialized microtubule sub‐networks, each of which is crucial to specific neuronal features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Jo Moutin
- Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, University Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, CEA, CNRS, Grenoble, France
| | - Christophe Bosc
- Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, University Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, CEA, CNRS, Grenoble, France
| | - Leticia Peris
- Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, University Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, CEA, CNRS, Grenoble, France
| | - Annie Andrieux
- Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, University Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, CEA, CNRS, Grenoble, France
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Garge RK, Laurent JM, Kachroo AH, Marcotte EM. Systematic Humanization of the Yeast Cytoskeleton Discerns Functionally Replaceable from Divergent Human Genes. Genetics 2020; 215:1153-1169. [PMID: 32522745 PMCID: PMC7404242 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.120.303378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Many gene families have been expanded by gene duplications along the human lineage, relative to ancestral opisthokonts, but the extent to which the duplicated genes function similarly is understudied. Here, we focused on structural cytoskeletal genes involved in critical cellular processes, including chromosome segregation, macromolecular transport, and cell shape maintenance. To determine functional redundancy and divergence of duplicated human genes, we systematically humanized the yeast actin, myosin, tubulin, and septin genes, testing ∼81% of human cytoskeletal genes across seven gene families for their ability to complement a growth defect induced by inactivation or deletion of the corresponding yeast ortholog. In five of seven families-all but α-tubulin and light myosin, we found at least one human gene capable of complementing loss of the yeast gene. Despite rescuing growth defects, we observed differential abilities of human genes to rescue cell morphology, meiosis, and mating defects. By comparing phenotypes of humanized strains with deletion phenotypes of their interaction partners, we identify instances of human genes in the actin and septin families capable of carrying out essential functions, but failing to fully complement the cytoskeletal roles of their yeast orthologs, thus leading to abnormal cell morphologies. Overall, we show that duplicated human cytoskeletal genes appear to have diverged such that only a few human genes within each family are capable of replacing the essential roles of their yeast orthologs. The resulting yeast strains with humanized cytoskeletal components now provide surrogate platforms to characterize human genes in simplified eukaryotic contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riddhiman K Garge
- Center for Systems and Synthetic Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Texas 78712
| | - Jon M Laurent
- Center for Systems and Synthetic Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Texas 78712
- Institute for Systems Genetics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, NYU Langone Health, New York 10016
| | - Aashiq H Kachroo
- The Department of Biology, Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, Montreal, H4B 1R6 Quebec, Canada
| | - Edward M Marcotte
- Center for Systems and Synthetic Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Texas 78712
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The tubulin code and its role in controlling microtubule properties and functions. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2020; 21:307-326. [PMID: 32107477 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-020-0214-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 385] [Impact Index Per Article: 96.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Microtubules are core components of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton with essential roles in cell division, shaping, motility and intracellular transport. Despite their functional heterogeneity, microtubules have a highly conserved structure made from almost identical molecular building blocks: the tubulin proteins. Alternative tubulin isotypes and a variety of post-translational modifications control the properties and functions of the microtubule cytoskeleton, a concept known as the 'tubulin code'. Here we review the current understanding of the molecular components of the tubulin code and how they impact microtubule properties and functions. We discuss how tubulin isotypes and post-translational modifications control microtubule behaviour at the molecular level and how this translates into physiological functions at the cellular and organism levels. We then go on to show how fine-tuning of microtubule function by some tubulin modifications can affect homeostasis and how perturbation of this fine-tuning can lead to a range of dysfunctions, many of which are linked to human disease.
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Wloga D, Joachimiak E, Fabczak H. Tubulin Post-Translational Modifications and Microtubule Dynamics. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18102207. [PMID: 29065455 PMCID: PMC5666887 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18102207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Microtubules are hollow tube-like polymeric structures composed of α,β-tubulin heterodimers. They play an important role in numerous cellular processes, including intracellular transport, cell motility and segregation of the chromosomes during cell division. Moreover, microtubule doublets or triplets form a scaffold of a cilium, centriole and basal body, respectively. To perform such diverse functions microtubules have to differ in their properties. Post-translational modifications are one of the factors that affect the properties of the tubulin polymer. Here we focus on the direct and indirect effects of post-translational modifications of tubulin on microtubule dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Wloga
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia Biology, Department of Cell Biology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Pasteur Str., 02-093 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Ewa Joachimiak
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia Biology, Department of Cell Biology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Pasteur Str., 02-093 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Hanna Fabczak
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia Biology, Department of Cell Biology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Pasteur Str., 02-093 Warsaw, Poland.
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Cirillo L, Gotta M, Meraldi P. The Elephant in the Room: The Role of Microtubules in Cancer. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 1002:93-124. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-57127-0_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Barisic M, Maiato H. The Tubulin Code: A Navigation System for Chromosomes during Mitosis. Trends Cell Biol 2016; 26:766-775. [PMID: 27344407 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Before chromosomes segregate during mitosis in metazoans, they align at the cell equator by a process known as chromosome congression. This is in part mediated by the coordinated activities of kinetochore motors with opposite directional preferences that transport peripheral chromosomes along distinct spindle microtubule populations. Because spindle microtubules are all made from the same α/β-tubulin heterodimers, a critical longstanding question has been how chromosomes are guided to specific locations during mitosis. This implies the existence of spatial cues/signals on specific spindle microtubules that are read by kinetochore motors on chromosomes and ultimately indicate the way towards the equator. Here, we discuss the emerging concept that tubulin post-translational modifications (PTMs), as part of the so-called tubulin code, work as a navigation system for kinetochore-based chromosome motility during early mitosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marin Barisic
- Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Cell Division Laboratory, Strandboulevarden 49, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Helder Maiato
- Chromosome Instability and Dynamics Laboratory, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde - i3S, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; Cell Division Unit, Department of Experimental Biology, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Alameda Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal.
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Abstract
Microtubules are cytoskeletal filaments that are dynamically assembled from α/β-tubulin heterodimers. The primary sequence and structure of the tubulin proteins and, consequently, the properties and architecture of microtubules are highly conserved in eukaryotes. Despite this conservation, tubulin is subject to heterogeneity that is generated in two ways: by the expression of different tubulin isotypes and by posttranslational modifications (PTMs). Identifying the mechanisms that generate and control tubulin heterogeneity and how this heterogeneity affects microtubule function are long-standing goals in the field. Recent work on tubulin PTMs has shed light on how these modifications could contribute to a “tubulin code” that coordinates the complex functions of microtubules in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Janke
- Institut Curie, 91405 Orsay, France Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 3306, 91405 Orsay, France Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1005, 91405 Orsay, France Paris Sciences et Lettres Research University, 75005 Paris, France
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Ito JI, Lu R, Nagayasu Y, Yokoyama S. Apolipoprotein A-I induces tubulin phosphorylation in association with cholesterol release in fetal rat astrocytes. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2014; 1841:1234-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Revised: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Mattos EC, Schumacher RI, Colli W, Alves MJM. Adhesion of Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes to fibronectin or laminin modifies tubulin and paraflagellar rod protein phosphorylation. PLoS One 2012; 7:e46767. [PMID: 23056443 PMCID: PMC3465109 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The unicellular parasite Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagaś disease in humans. Adherence of the infective stage to elements of the extracellular matrix (ECM), as laminin and fibronectin, is an essential step in host cell invasion. Although members of the gp85/TS, as Tc85, were identified as laminin and fibronectin ligands, the signaling events triggered on the parasite upon binding to these molecules are largely unexplored. Methodology/Principal Findings Viable infective parasites were incubated with laminin, fibronectin or bovine serum albumin for different periods of time and the proteins were separated by bidimensional gels. The phosphoproteins were envisaged by specific staining and the spots showing phosphorylation levels significantly different from the control were excised and identified by MS/MS. The results of interest were confirmed by immunoblotting or immunoprecipitation and the localization of proteins in the parasite was determined by immunofluorescence. Using a host cell-free system, our data indicate that the phosphorylation contents of T. cruzi proteins encompassing different cellular functions are modified upon incubation of the parasite with fibronectin or laminin. Conclusions/Significance Herein it is shown, for the first time, that paraflagellar rod proteins and α-tubulin, major structural elements of the parasite cytoskeleton, are predominantly dephosphorylated during the process, probably involving the ERK1/2 pathway. It is well established that T. cruzi binds to ECM elements during the cell infection process. The fact that laminin and fibronectin induce predominantly dephosphorylation of the main cytoskeletal proteins of the parasite suggests a possible correlation between cytoskeletal modifications and the ability of the parasite to internalize into host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliciane C. Mattos
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Robert I. Schumacher
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Walter Colli
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Julia M. Alves
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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