Patterns of recombination activity on mouse chromosome 11 revealed by high resolution mapping

The genome-wide meiotic recombination landscape in ciliates and its implications for crossover regulation and genome evolution

Meiotic recombination is essential for sexual reproduction and its regulation has been extensively studied in many taxa. However, genome-wide recombination landscape has not been reported in ciliates and it remains unknown how it is affected by the unique features of ciliates: the synaptonemal complex (SC)-independent meiosis and the nuclear dimorphism. Here, we show the recombination landscape in the model ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila by analyzing single-nucleotide polymorphism datasets from 38 hybrid progeny. We detect 1021 crossover (CO) events (35.8 per meiosis), corresponding to an overall CO rate of 9.9 cM/Mb. However, gene conversion by non-crossover is rare (1.03 per meiosis) and not biased towards G or C alleles. Consistent with the reported roles of SC in CO interference, we find no obvious sign of CO interference. CO tends to occur within germ-soma common genomic regions and many of the 44 identified CO hotspots localize at the centromeric or subtelomeric regions. Gene ontology analyses show that CO hotspots are strongly associated with genes responding to environmental changes. We discuss these results with respect to how nuclear dimorphism has potentially driven the formation of the observed recombination landscape to facilitate environmental adaptation and the sharing of machinery among meiotic and somatic recombination.

Crossover patterns under meiotic chromosome program

Repairing DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) with homologous chromosomes as templates is the hallmark of meiosis. The critical outcome of meiotic homologous recombination is crossovers, which ensure faithful chromosome segregation and promote genetic diversity of progenies. Crossover patterns are tightly controlled and exhibit three characteristics: obligatory crossover, crossover interference, and crossover homeostasis. Aberrant crossover patterns are the leading cause of infertility, miscarriage, and congenital disease. Crossover recombination occurs in the context of meiotic chromosomes, and it is tightly integrated with and regulated by meiotic chromosome structure both locally and globally. Meiotic chromosomes are organized in a loop-axis architecture. Diverse evidence shows that chromosome axis length determines crossover frequency. Interestingly, short chromosomes show different crossover patterns compared to long chromosomes. A high frequency of human embryos are aneuploid, primarily derived from female meiosis errors. Dramatically increased aneuploidy in older women is the well-known “maternal age effect.” However, a high frequency of aneuploidy also occurs in young women, derived from crossover maturation inefficiency in human females. In addition, frequency of human aneuploidy also shows other age-dependent alterations. Here, current advances in the understanding of these issues are reviewed, regulation of crossover patterns by meiotic chromosomes are discussed, and issues that remain to be investigated are suggested.

EWSR1 affects PRDM9-dependent histone 3 methylation and provides a link between recombination hotspots and the chromosome axis protein REC8

Meiotic recombination in most mammals requires recombination hotspot activation through the action of the histone 3 Lys-4 and Lys-36 methyltransferase PRDM9 to ensure successful double-strand-break initiation and repair. Here we show that EWSR1, a protein whose role in meiosis was not previously clarified in detail, binds to both PRDM9 and pREC8, a phosphorylated meiosis-specific cohesin, in male meiotic cells. We created a Ewsr1 conditional knockout mouse model to deplete EWSR1 before the onset of meiosis and found that absence of EWSR1 causes meiotic arrest with decreased histone trimethylation at meiotic hotspots, impaired DNA double-strand-break repair, and reduced crossover number. Our results demonstrate that EWSR1 is essential for promoting PRDM9-dependent histone methylation and normal meiotic progress, possibly by facilitating the linking between PRDM9-bound hotspots and the nascent chromosome axis through its component cohesin pREC8.

Insights into variation in meiosis from 31,228 human sperm genomes

Meiosis, although essential for reproduction, is also variable and error-prone: rates of chromosome crossover vary among gametes, between the sexes, and among humans of the same sex, and chromosome missegregation leads to abnormal chromosome numbers (aneuploidy)1-8. To study diverse meiotic outcomes and how they covary across chromosomes, gametes and humans, we developed Sperm-seq, a way of simultaneously analysing the genomes of thousands of individual sperm. Here we analyse the genomes of 31,228 human gametes from 20 sperm donors, identifying 813,122 crossovers and 787 aneuploid chromosomes. Sperm donors had aneuploidy rates ranging from 0.01 to 0.05 aneuploidies per gamete; crossovers partially protected chromosomes from nondisjunction at the meiosis I cell division. Some chromosomes and donors underwent more-frequent nondisjunction during meiosis I, and others showed more meiosis II segregation failures. Sperm genomes also manifested many genomic anomalies that could not be explained by simple nondisjunction. Diverse recombination phenotypes-from crossover rates to crossover location and separation, a measure of crossover interference-covaried strongly across individuals and cells. Our results can be incorporated with earlier observations into a unified model in which a core mechanism, the variable physical compaction of meiotic chromosomes, generates interindividual and cell-to-cell variation in diverse meiotic phenotypes.

Super-resolution imaging of RAD51 and DMC1 in DNA repair foci reveals dynamic distribution patterns in meiotic prophase

The recombinase RAD51, and its meiosis-specific paralog DMC1 localize at DNA double-strand break (DSB) sites in meiotic prophase. While both proteins are required during meiotic prophase, their spatial organization during meiotic DSB repair is not fully understood. Using super-resolution microscopy on mouse spermatocyte nuclei, we aimed to define their relative position at DSB foci, and how these vary in time. We show that a large fraction of meiotic DSB repair foci (38%) consisted of a single RAD51 nanofocus and a single DMC1 nanofocus (D1R1 configuration) that were partially overlapping with each other (average center-center distance around 70 nm). The vast majority of the rest of the foci had a similar large RAD51 and DMC1 nanofocus, but in combination with additional smaller nanofoci (D2R1, D1R2, D2R2, or DxRy configuration) at an average distance of around 250 nm. As prophase progressed, less D1R1 and more D2R1 foci were observed, where the large RAD51 nanofocus in the D2R1 foci elongated and gradually oriented towards the distant small DMC1 nanofocus. D1R2 foci frequency was relatively constant, and the single DMC1 nanofocus did not elongate, but was frequently observed between the two RAD51 nanofoci in early stages. D2R2 foci were rare (<10%) and nearest neighbour analyses also did not reveal cofoci formation between D1R1 foci. However, overall, foci localized nonrandomly along the SC, and the frequency of the distance distributions peaked at 800 nm, indicating interference and/or a preferred distance between two ends of a DSB. DMC1 nanofoci where somewhat further away from the axial or lateral elements of the synaptonemal complex (SC, connecting the chromosomal axes of homologs) compared to RAD51 nanofoci. In the absence of the transverse filament of the SC, early configurations were more prominent, and RAD51 nanofocus elongation occurred only transiently. This in-depth analysis of single cell landscapes of RAD51 and DMC1 accumulation patterns at DSB repair sites at super-resolution revealed the variability of foci composition, and defined functional consensus configurations that change over time.

Weak Correlation between Nucleotide Variation and Recombination Rate across the House Mouse Genome

Positive selection and purifying selection reduce levels of variation at linked neutral loci. One consequence of these processes is that the amount of neutral diversity and the meiotic recombination rate are predicted to be positively correlated across the genome-a prediction met in some species but not others. To better document the prevalence of selection at linked sites, we used new and published whole-genome sequences to survey nucleotide variation in population samples of the western European house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus) from Germany, France, and Gough Island, a remote volcanic island in the south Atlantic. Correlations between sequence variation and recombination rates estimated independently from dense linkage maps were consistently very weak (ρ ≤ 0.06), though they exceeded conventional significance thresholds. This pattern persisted in comparisons between genomic regions with the highest and lowest recombination rates, as well as in models incorporating the density of transcribed sites, the density of CpG dinucleotides, and divergence between mouse and rat as covariates. We conclude that natural selection affects linked neutral variation in a restricted manner in the western European house mouse.

Crossover Interference, Crossover Maturation, and Human Aneuploidy

A striking feature of human female sexual reproduction is the high level of gametes that exhibit an aberrant number of chromosomes (aneuploidy). A high baseline observed in women of prime reproductive age is followed by a dramatic increase in older women. Proper chromosome segregation requires one or more DNA crossovers (COs) between homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes, in combination with cohesion between sister chromatid arms. In human females, CO designations occur normally, according to the dictates of CO interference, giving early CO-fated intermediates. However, ≈25% of these intermediates fail to mature to final CO products. This effect explains the high baseline of aneuploidy and is predicted to synergize with age-dependent cohesion loss to explain the maternal age effect. Here, modern advances in the understanding of crossing over and CO interference are reviewed, the implications of human female CO maturation inefficiency are further discussed, and areas of interest for future studies are suggested.

The evolutionary turnover of recombination hot spots contributes to speciation in mice

In this study, Smagulova et al investigate how the speciation gene in mammals, Prdm9, regulates hot spots of genetic recombination and how this contributes to speciation. The authors generated a comprehensive panel of high-quality maps of recombination hot spots across major mouse subspecies and their hybrids and provide novel insights into how the action of PRDM9 and the evolutionary turnover of recombination hot spots alter the genome and lead to incompatibilities in hybrids.

Meiotic recombination is required for the segregation of homologous chromosomes and is essential for fertility. In most mammals, the DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) that initiate meiotic recombination are directed to a subset of genomic loci (hot spots) by sequence-specific binding of the PRDM9 protein. Rapid evolution of the DNA-binding specificity of PRDM9 and gradual erosion of PRDM9-binding sites by gene conversion will alter the recombination landscape over time. To better understand the evolutionary turnover of recombination hot spots and its consequences, we mapped DSB hot spots in four major subspecies of Mus musculus with different Prdm9 alleles and in their F1 hybrids. We found that hot spot erosion governs the preferential usage of some Prdm9 alleles over others in hybrid mice and increases sequence diversity specifically at hot spots that become active in the hybrids. As crossovers are disfavored at such hot spots, we propose that sequence divergence generated by hot spot turnover may create an impediment for recombination in hybrids, potentially leading to reduced fertility and, eventually, speciation.

Local and sex-specific biases in crossover vs. noncrossover outcomes at meiotic recombination hot spots in mice

In this study, de Boer et al. investigated the influence of sex and chromosomal location on mammalian recombination outcomes and showed in one example that double-strand breaks within a hot spot can adopt either crossover or noncrossover fates in males but rarely led to crossing over in females. The findings here demonstrate that the outcome of mammalian meiotic recombination can be biased and provide novel insight into recombination mechanisms.

Meiotic recombination initiated by programmed double-strand breaks (DSBs) yields two types of interhomolog recombination products, crossovers and noncrossovers, but what determines whether a DSB will yield a crossover or noncrossover is not understood. In this study, we analyzed the influence of sex and chromosomal location on mammalian recombination outcomes by constructing fine-scale recombination maps in both males and females at two mouse hot spots located in different regions of the same chromosome. These include the most comprehensive maps of recombination hot spots in oocytes to date. One hot spot, located centrally on chromosome 1, behaved similarly in male and female meiosis: Crossovers and noncrossovers formed at comparable levels and ratios in both sexes. In contrast, at a distal hot spot, crossovers were recovered only in males even though noncrossovers were obtained at similar frequencies in both sexes. These findings reveal an example of extreme sex-specific bias in recombination outcome. We further found that estimates of relative DSB levels are surprisingly poor predictors of relative crossover frequencies between hot spots in males. Our results demonstrate that the outcome of mammalian meiotic recombination can be biased, that this bias can vary depending on location and cellular context, and that DSB frequency is not the only determinant of crossover frequency.

SNP Formation Bias in the Murine Genome Provides Evidence for Parallel Evolution

In this study, we show novel DNA motifs that promote single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) formation and are conserved among exons, introns, and intergenic DNA from mice (Sanger Mouse Genomes Project), human genes (1000 Genomes), and tumor-specific somatic mutations (data from TCGA). We further characterize SNPs likely to be very recent in origin (i.e., formed in otherwise congenic mice) and show enrichment for both synonymous and parallel DNA variants occurring under circumstances not attributable to purifying selection. The findings provide insight regarding SNP contextual bias and eukaryotic codon usage as strategies that favor long-term exonic stability. The study also furnishes new information concerning rates of murine genomic evolution and features of DNA mutagenesis (at the time of SNP formation) that should be viewed as "adaptive."

PRDM9 drives evolutionary erosion of hotspots in Mus musculus through haplotype-specific initiation of meiotic recombination

Meiotic recombination generates new genetic variation and assures the proper segregation of chromosomes in gametes. PRDM9, a zinc finger protein with histone methyltransferase activity, initiates meiotic recombination by binding DNA at recombination hotspots and directing the position of DNA double-strand breaks (DSB). The DSB repair mechanism suggests that hotspots should eventually self-destruct, yet genome-wide recombination levels remain constant, a conundrum known as the hotspot paradox. To test if PRDM9 drives this evolutionary erosion, we measured activity of the Prdm9^Cst allele in two Mus musculus subspecies, M.m. castaneus, in which Prdm9^Cst arose, and M.m. domesticus, into which Prdm9^Cst was introduced experimentally. Comparing these two strains, we find that haplotype differences at hotspots lead to qualitative and quantitative changes in PRDM9 binding and activity. Using Mus spretus as an outlier, we found most variants affecting PRDM9^Cst binding arose and were fixed in M.m. castaneus, suppressing hotspot activity. Furthermore, M.m. castaneus×M.m. domesticus F1 hybrids exhibit novel hotspots, with large haplotype biases in both PRDM9 binding and chromatin modification. These novel hotspots represent sites of historic evolutionary erosion that become activated in hybrids due to crosstalk between one parent's Prdm9 allele and the opposite parent's chromosome. Together these data support a model where haplotype-specific PRDM9 binding directs biased gene conversion at hotspots, ultimately leading to hotspot erosion.

Sexually reproducing creatures need to produce germ cells, notably sperm and egg, and do so using a specialized cell division, termed meiosis. A hallmark of meiosis is the process of recombination, in which pieces of maternal and paternal genetic material are exchanged, creating new combinations that are inherited by their progeny. Recombination increases diversity in subsequent generations, facilitating evolution. However, if recombination goes awry, it can lead to genetic disorders and spontaneous abortions in humans. In most mammals the sites of recombination are directed by the enzyme PRDM9 to specific regions on DNA, termed hotspots. For several decades it has been speculated that the process of recombination should lead to the eventual inactivation of hotspots, resulting in the loss of ability to reproduce. The discovery of PRDM9 provided a potential solution to this dilemma when the appearance of new PRDM9 alleles with altered DNA binding specificity would immediately create a new set of hotspots. We have now used the power of mouse genetics and large scale measurements of PRDM9 location and activity to show that this cycle of hotspot loss and recovery does indeed occur over the course of hundreds of thousands of years, and is directed by PRDM9.

Quantitative trait locus mapping methods for diversity outbred mice

Genetic mapping studies in the mouse and other model organisms are used to search for genes underlying complex phenotypes. Traditional genetic mapping studies that employ single-generation crosses have poor mapping resolution and limit discovery to loci that are polymorphic between the two parental strains. Multiparent outbreeding populations address these shortcomings by increasing the density of recombination events and introducing allelic variants from multiple founder strains. However, multiparent crosses present new analytical challenges and require specialized software to take full advantage of these benefits. Each animal in an outbreeding population is genetically unique and must be genotyped using a high-density marker set; regression models for mapping must accommodate multiple founder alleles, and complex breeding designs give rise to polygenic covariance among related animals that must be accounted for in mapping analysis. The Diversity Outbred (DO) mice combine the genetic diversity of eight founder strains in a multigenerational breeding design that has been maintained for >16 generations. The large population size and randomized mating ensure the long-term genetic stability of this population. We present a complete analytical pipeline for genetic mapping in DO mice, including algorithms for probabilistic reconstruction of founder haplotypes from genotyping array intensity data, and mapping methods that accommodate multiple founder haplotypes and account for relatedness among animals. Power analysis suggests that studies with as few as 200 DO mice can detect loci with large effects, but loci that account for <5% of trait variance may require a sample size of up to 1000 animals. The methods described here are implemented in the freely available R package DOQTL.

PRDM9 binding organizes hotspot nucleosomes and limits Holliday junction migration

In mammals, genetic recombination during meiosis is limited to a set of 1- to 2-kb regions termed hotspots. Their locations are predominantly determined by the zinc finger protein PRDM9, which binds to DNA in hotspots and subsequently uses its SET domain to locally trimethylate histone H3 at lysine 4 (H3K4me3). This sets the stage for double-strand break (DSB) formation and reciprocal exchange of DNA between chromatids, forming Holliday junctions. Here we report genome-wide analyses of PRDM9-dependent histone modifications using two inbred mouse strains differing only in their PRDM9 zinc finger domain. We show that PRDM9 binding actively reorganizes nucleosomes into a symmetrical pattern, creating an extended nucleosome-depleted region. These regions are centered by a consensus PRDM9 binding motif, whose location and identity was confirmed in vitro. We also show that DSBs are centered over the PRDM9 binding motif within the nucleosome-depleted region. Combining these results with data from genetic crosses, we find that crossing-over is restricted to the region marked by H3K4me3. We suggest that PRDM9-modified nucleosomes create a permissible environment that first directs the location of DSBs and then defines the boundaries of Holliday junction branch migration.

Crossover patterning by the beam-film model: analysis and implications

Crossing-over is a central feature of meiosis. Meiotic crossover (CO) sites are spatially patterned along chromosomes. CO-designation at one position disfavors subsequent CO-designation(s) nearby, as described by the classical phenomenon of CO interference. If multiple designations occur, COs tend to be evenly spaced. We have previously proposed a mechanical model by which CO patterning could occur. The central feature of a mechanical mechanism is that communication along the chromosomes, as required for CO interference, can occur by redistribution of mechanical stress. Here we further explore the nature of the beam-film model, its ability to quantitatively explain CO patterns in detail in several organisms, and its implications for three important patterning-related phenomena: CO homeostasis, the fact that the level of zero-CO bivalents can be low (the “obligatory CO”), and the occurrence of non-interfering COs. Relationships to other models are discussed.

Spatial patterning is a common feature of biological systems at all length scales, from molecular to multi-organismic. Meiosis is the specialized cellular program in which a diploid cell gives rise to haploid gametes for sexual reproduction. Crossing-over between homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes (homologs) is a central feature of this program, playing a role not only for increasing genetic diversity but also for ensuring regular segregation of homologs at the first meiotic division. The distribution of crossovers (COs) along meiotic chromosomes is a paradigmatic example of spatial patterning. Crossovers occur at different positions in different meiotic nuclei but, nonetheless, tend to be evenly spaced along the chromosomes. We previously-described a mechanical “stress and stress relief” model for CO patterning with an accompanying mathematical description (the “beam-film model”). In this paper we explore the roles of mathematical parameters in this model; show that it can very accurately describe experimental data sets from several organisms, in considerably quantitative depth; and discuss implications of the model for several phenomena that are directly related to crossover patterning, including the features which can ensure that every chromosome always acquires at least one crossover.

Meiotic recombination in mammals: localization and regulation

During meiosis, a programmed induction of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) leads to the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. These exchanges increase genome diversity and are essential for proper chromosome segregation at the first meiotic division. Recent findings have highlighted an unexpected molecular control of the distribution of meiotic DSBs in mammals by a rapidly evolving gene, PR domain-containing 9 (PRDM9), and genome-wide analyses have facilitated the characterization of meiotic DSB sites at unprecedented resolution. In addition, the identification of new players in DSB repair processes has allowed the delineation of recombination pathways that have two major outcomes, crossovers and non-crossovers, which have distinct mechanistic roles and consequences for genome evolution.

DNA binding specificities of the long zinc-finger recombination protein PRDM9

Background

Meiotic recombination ensures proper segregation of homologous chromosomes and creates genetic variation. In many organisms, recombination occurs at limited sites, termed 'hotspots', whose positions in mammals are determined by PR domain member 9 (PRDM9), a long-array zinc-finger and chromatin-modifier protein. Determining the rules governing the DNA binding of PRDM9 is a major issue in understanding how it functions.

Results

Mouse PRDM9 protein variants bind to hotspot DNA sequences in a manner that is specific for both PRDM9 and DNA haplotypes, and that in vitro binding parallels its in vivo biological activity. Examining four hotspots, three activated by Prdm9^Cst and one activated by Prdm9^Dom2, we found that all binding sites required the full array of 11 or 12 contiguous fingers, depending on the allele, and that there was little sequence similarity between the binding sites of the three Prdm9^Cst activated hotspots. The binding specificity of each position in the Hlx1 binding site, activated by Prdm9^Cst, was tested by mutating each nucleotide to its three alternatives. The 31 positions along the binding site varied considerably in the ability of alternative bases to support binding, which also implicates a role for additional binding to the DNA phosphate backbone.

Conclusions

These results, which provide the first detailed mapping of PRDM9 binding to DNA and, to our knowledge, the most detailed analysis yet of DNA binding by a long zinc-finger array, make clear that the binding specificities of PRDM9, and possibly other long-array zinc-finger proteins, are unusually complex.

Analysis of recombinants in female mouse meiosis

During meiosis, homologous chromosomes (homologs) undergo recombinational interactions, resulting in the formation of crossovers (COs) or noncrossovers (NCOs). Both COs and NCOs are initiated by the same event: programmed double-strand DNA breaks (DSBs), which occur preferentially at hotspots throughout the genome. COs contribute to the genetic diversity of gametes and are needed to promote proper meiotic chromosome segregation. Accordingly, their formation is tightly controlled. In the mouse, the sites of preferred CO formation differ between male and female chromosomes, both on a regional level and on the level of individual hotspots. Sperm typing using (half-sided) allele-specific PCR has proven a powerful technique to characterize COs and all detectable NCOs at hotspots on male human and mouse chromosomes. In contrast, very little is known about the properties of hotspots in female meiosis. This chapter describes an adaptation of sperm typing to analyze recombinants in a hotspot, using DNA isolated from an ovary cell suspension enriched for oocytes.

New paradigms for conserved, multifactorial, cis-acting regulation of meiotic recombination

How do cells position the Spo11 (Rec12)-dependent initiation of meiotic recombination at hotspots? The mechanisms are poorly understood and a prevailing view is that they differ substantially between phylogenetic groups. However, recent work discovered that individual species have multiple different DNA sequence-specific, protein–DNA complexes that regulate (and are essential for the activation of) recombination hotspots. The cis-acting elements function combinatorially with documented examples of synergism, antagonism and redundancy. Furthermore, we provide evidence that all currently well-defined modules of this multifactorial, cis-acting regulation are conserved functionally between taxa whose latest common ancestor occurred more than 1 billion years ago. Functionally conserved components include the ATF/CREB-family heterodimer Atf1-Pcr1 and its CRE-like DNA site M26, the CCAAT-box-binding complex Php2-Php3-Php5 and the CCAAT-box, and the zinc-finger protein Rst2 and its Oligo-C motif. The newfound multiplicity, functional redundancy and conservation of cis-acting controls constitute a paradigm shift with broad implications. They provide compelling evidence that most meiotic recombination is, like transcription, regulated by sequence-specific protein–DNA complexes. And the new findings provide important mechanistic insight, such as a solution to the conundrum that Prdm9 is a ‘master regulator’ of—yet is dispensable for—hotspot activity in mammals.

Fine-scale maps of recombination rates and hotspots in the mouse genome

Recombination events are not uniformly distributed and often cluster in narrow regions known as recombination hotspots. Several studies using different approaches have dramatically advanced our understanding of recombination hotspot regulation. Population genetic data have been used to map and quantify hotspots in the human genome. Genetic variation in recombination rates and hotspots usage have been explored in human pedigrees, mouse intercrosses, and by sperm typing. These studies pointed to the central role of the PRDM9 gene in hotspot modulation. In this study, we used single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from whole-genome resequencing and genotyping studies of mouse inbred strains to estimate recombination rates across the mouse genome and identified 47,068 historical hotspots--an average of over 2477 per chromosome. We show by simulation that inbred mouse strains can be used to identify positions of historical hotspots. Recombination hotspots were found to be enriched for the predicted binding sequences for different alleles of the PRDM9 protein. Recombination rates were on average lower near transcription start sites (TSS). Comparing the inferred historical recombination hotspots with the recent genome-wide mapping of double-strand breaks (DSBs) in mouse sperm revealed a significant overlap, especially toward the telomeres. Our results suggest that inbred strains can be used to characterize and study the dynamics of historical recombination hotspots. They also strengthen previous findings on mouse recombination hotspots, and specifically the impact of sequence variants in Prdm9.

Nonmammalian parent-of-origin effects

Chromosomes acquire different epigenetic marks during oogenesis and spermatogenesis. After fertilization, if retained and selected, these differences may result in imprinting effects. Rather than being an oddity, imprinting effects have been found in many sexually reproducing organisms. Interestingly, imprinting can result in disparate effects under different selective forces. At the same time, epigenetic mechanisms and selective pressures shared by sexually reproducing organisms could underlie common imprinting effects. Large-scale studies are revealing that parent-of-origin effects are more common than previously thought and supporting the important contribution of imprinting to many traits and diseases.

Genetic analysis of genome-scale recombination rate evolution in house mice

The rate of meiotic recombination varies markedly between species and among individuals. Classical genetic experiments demonstrated a heritable component to population variation in recombination rate, and specific sequence variants that contribute to recombination rate differences between individuals have recently been identified. Despite these advances, the genetic basis of species divergence in recombination rate remains unexplored. Using a cytological assay that allows direct in situ imaging of recombination events in spermatocytes, we report a large (∼30%) difference in global recombination rate between males of two closely related house mouse subspecies (Mus musculus musculus and M. m. castaneus). To characterize the genetic basis of this recombination rate divergence, we generated an F2 panel of inter-subspecific hybrid males (n = 276) from an intercross between wild-derived inbred strains CAST/EiJ (M. m. castaneus) and PWD/PhJ (M. m. musculus). We uncover considerable heritable variation for recombination rate among males from this mapping population. Much of the F2 variance for recombination rate and a substantial portion of the difference in recombination rate between the parental strains is explained by eight moderate- to large-effect quantitative trait loci, including two transgressive loci on the X chromosome. In contrast to the rapid evolution observed in males, female CAST/EiJ and PWD/PhJ animals show minimal divergence in recombination rate (∼5%). The existence of loci on the X chromosome suggests a genetic mechanism to explain this male-biased evolution. Our results provide an initial map of the genetic changes underlying subspecies differences in genome-scale recombination rate and underscore the power of the house mouse system for understanding the evolution of this trait.

Homologous recombination is an indispensable feature of the mammalian meiotic program and an important mechanism for creating genetic diversity. Despite its central significance, recombination rates vary markedly between species and among individuals. Although recent studies have begun to unravel the genetic basis of recombination rate variation within populations, the genetic mechanisms of species divergence in recombination rate remain poorly characterized. In this study, we show that two closely related house mouse subspecies differ in their genomic recombination rates by ∼30%, providing an excellent model system for studying evolutionary divergence in this trait. Using quantitative genetic methods, we identify eight genomic regions that contribute to divergence in global recombination rate between these subspecies, including large effect loci and multiple loci on the X-chromosome. Our study uncovers novel genomic loci contributing to species divergence in global recombination rate and offers simple genetic explanations for rapid phenotypic divergence in this trait.

High recombination rates and hotspots in a Plasmodium falciparum genetic cross

Background

The human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum survives pressures from the host immune system and antimalarial drugs by modifying its genome. Genetic recombination and nucleotide substitution are the two major mechanisms that the parasite employs to generate genome diversity. A better understanding of these mechanisms may provide important information for studying parasite evolution, immune evasion and drug resistance.

Results

Here, we used a high-density tiling array to estimate the genetic recombination rate among 32 progeny of a P. falciparum genetic cross (7G8 × GB4). We detected 638 recombination events and constructed a high-resolution genetic map. Comparing genetic and physical maps, we obtained an overall recombination rate of 9.6 kb per centimorgan and identified 54 candidate recombination hotspots. Similar to centromeres in other organisms, the sequences of P. falciparum centromeres are found in chromosome regions largely devoid of recombination activity. Motifs enriched in hotspots were also identified, including a 12-bp G/C-rich motif with 3-bp periodicity that may interact with a protein containing 11 predicted zinc finger arrays.

Conclusions

These results show that the P. falciparum genome has a high recombination rate, although it also follows the overall rule of meiosis in eukaryotes with an average of approximately one crossover per chromosome per meiosis. GC-rich repetitive motifs identified in the hotspot sequences may play a role in the high recombination rate observed. The lack of recombination activity in centromeric regions is consistent with the observations of reduced recombination near the centromeres of other organisms.