A bi-functional anti-thrombosis protein containing both direct-acting fibrin(ogen)olytic and plasminogen-activating activities

Substituting Fish Meal with Tubiechong (Eupolyphaga sinensis) By-Product in the Diets of Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides): Effects on Growth, Meat Quality, and Liver Health

A feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the effect of replacing 0% (control), 10% (T10), 20% (T20), 30% (T30), and 40% (T40) fish meal with a Tubiechong (Eupolyphaga sinensis) by-product in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Triplicate groups of 30 fish (5.36 ± 0.01 g) were fed two times daily to apparent satiation for 60 days. The experimental results showed that the Tubiechong by-product could improve the growth performance of largemouth bass by increasing the FBW, WGR, and SGR until the replacement ratio was 40%. The quadratic regression analysis showed that the proportion of the Tubiechong by-product was 20.79% and 20.91%, respectively, when WGR and SGR were the best. Concurrently, the meat quality in the replacement groups was higher, specifically, the lightness and white values were higher, and the water loss rates were lower (P < 0.05) than that in the control group. Moreover, the changes of the activities of CAT and GSH in the liver and T-AOC and GSH in serum could reveal the antioxidant capacity improvement of fish by the Tubiechong by-product. In the study, the replacement groups had lower T-CHO and HDL-C in serum (P < 0.05), indicating that the Tubiechong by-product had an active role in improving blood lipid and regulating lipid metabolism. Simultaneously, the replacement groups had a normal structure with central hepatocytes' nuclei and deviated from the center partly, while most of the hepatocytes were swollen in the control group with nuclear degeneration. The results showed that the Tubiechong by-product had a positive effect on the liver health of fish. Conclusively, the present study indicated that the partial dietary replacement of fish meal using the Tubiechong by-product (for up to 40% replacement level) in the diet of largemouth bass not only caused no adverse effects on fish health but also improved the growth performance, meat quality, antioxidant capacity, and hepatic health and is conducive to supplying nutritious, high-quality, and healthy aquatic products.

A minireview of the medicinal and edible insects from the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)

Entomoceuticals define a subset of pharmaceuticals derived from insects. The therapeutic effect of insect-derived drugs has been empirically validated by the direct use of various folk medicines originating from three sources in particular: the glandular secretions of insects (e.g., silk, honey, venom), the body parts of the insect or the whole used live or by various processing (e.g., cooked, toasted, ground), and active ingredients extracted from insects or insect-microbe symbiosis. Insects have been widely exploited in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) relative to other ethnomedicines, especially in the prospect of insect species for medicinal uses. It is noticeable that most of these entomoceuticals are also exploited as health food for improving immune function. In addition, some edible insects are rich in animal protein and have high nutritional value, which are used in the food field, such as insect wine, health supplements and so on. In this review, we focused on 12 insect species that have been widely used in traditional Chinese herbal formulae but have remained less investigated for their biological properties in previous studies. We also combined the entomoceutical knowledge with recent advances in insect omics. This review specifies the underexplored medicinal insects from ethnomedicine and shows their specific medicinal and nutritional roles in traditional medicine.

Tubiechong：A review on ethnomedicinal uses, bioactive chemical constituents and pharmacological activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tubiechong comprises mainly Eupolyphaga and Steleophaga is widely distributed in China. It has been used in the traditional medicine systems in Asian countries specially in China，Japan and Singapore for thousand years.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The aim of this work is to review the scientific work about Tubiechong regarding their ethnomedicinal uses, bioactive chemical constituents and pharmacological activities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant literature of Tubiechong was collected for its traditional uses, pharmacological activities, and bioactive compounds released from inception until May 2022. The online databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, SciFinder Scholar, Springer Link, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang Data, and VIP database were used as electronic search engines for articles with the various specific keywords. Additionally, references from ancient texts and local information such as PhD and MSc theses, books, and Chinese journals were also included.

RESULTS

The clinical researches have revealed that Tubiechong alone has been successfully used to treat bone disease, ache, sprain, herpes zoster, paronychia and so on. Tubichong's main clinical application is to form formulations with other herbs. The most widely used 34 kinds of Chinese patent medicine containing Tubiechong were included in Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 Edition) for the treatment of traumatic injury, low back pain, cardiovascular disease, tumors or mass and nodule, cervical spondylopathy, osteoarthritis and psoriasis. Its other derived formulas have been used in the clinical treatment of various diseases, such as blood stasis, hepatic cirrhosis, cyclomastopathy, chronic active hepatitis, nephropathy, gynaecopathia, cancer diseases. To date, the bioactive substances reported are limited to protein and peptides, fatty acids, polysaccharides and alkaloids from Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker. So far, the pharmacological activities of Tubiechong and its various extracts have been evaluated, including anticoagulant and antithrombotic, anticancer, bone repair, immunomodulation, analgesia, antioxidant, antihyperlipidemic, antimicrobial and protective and repair functions for damage to the liver, heart, brain and skin. As an edible insect, its safety has also been confirmed by acute toxicity tests and 30-day feeding trials.

CONCLUSION

Tubiechong is an important insect medicine with the effect of promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis, which has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years for the treatment of trauma and abdominal lumps, and has now been clinically extended to the treatment of a variety of diseases. Its multiple pharmacological activities indicate that it has great potential for development and application. However, its chemical constituents with pharmacological activity require further excavation and detailed study. In addition, the in-depth molecular pharmacological mechanisms deserve further explanation.

A Novel Bi-Functional Fibrinolytic Enzyme with Anticoagulant and Thrombolytic Activities from a Marine-Derived Fungus Aspergillus versicolor ZLH-1

Fibrinolytic enzymes are important components in the treatment of thrombosis-associated disorders. A new bi-functional fibrinolytic enzyme, versiase, was identified from a marine-derived fungus Aspergillus versicolor ZLH-1. The enzyme was isolated from the fungal culture through precipitation with ammonium sulfate at 90% saturation. Additionally, it was further purified by DEAE-based ion-exchange chromatography, with a recovery of 20.4%. The fibrinolytic enzyme presented as one band on both SDS-PAGE and fibrin-zymogram, with a molecular mass of 37.3 kDa. It was elucidated as a member of metalloprotease in M35 family by proteomic approaches. The homology-modeling analysis revealed that versiase shares significant structural homology wuth the zinc metalloendopeptidase. The enzyme displayed maximum activity at 40 °C and pH 5.0. The activity of versiase was strongly inhibited by the metalloprotease inhibitors EDTA and BGTA. Furthermore, versiase hydrolyzed fibrin directly and indirectly via the activation of plasminogen, and it was able to hydrolyze the three chains (α, β, γ) of fibrin(ogen). Additionally, versiase demonstrated promising thrombolytic and anticoagulant activities, without many side-effects noticed. In conclusion, versiase appears to be a potent fibrinolytic enzyme deserving further investigation.

Efficacy and Safety of Dahuang Zhechong Pill in Silicosis: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

There is no effective therapy for silicosis, and Dahuang Zhechong pill (DHZCP), an ancient Chinese medicine prescription, may have a therapeutic effect on silicosis. This study aims to verify the efficacy and safety of DHZCP in silicosis.

Methods

This is a randomized controlled clinical trial done at Panzhihua Second People's Hospital (Panzhihua City, Sichuan Province, China). Participants diagnosed with silicosis were recruited and randomized to the conventional treatment group (CG) or DHZCP combined with the conventional treatment group (DG). Forced vital capacity % predicted (FVC%), diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide % predicted (DLCO%), six-minute walk distance (6MWD), peripheral oxygen (SpO₂), King's Brief Interstitial Lung Disease Questionnaire (K-BILD), and safety outcomes were measured at baseline and 9 weeks.

Results

Fifty-six participants (28 in each group) completed the study, and 53 of them (26 in DG and 27 in CG) completed pulmonary function. At 9 weeks, compared with no DHZCP, DHZCP treatment was associated with significant improvements in FVC% (mean ± SD, 95%CI) (8.2 ± 3.9, 0.3 to 16.0), DLCO% (8.6 ± 3.5, 1.5 to 15.7), SpO₂ (3.8 ± 0.7, 2.3 to 5.2), and K-BILD total score (6.0 ± 2.3, 1.4 to 10.7). And, there were no statistical differences of safety outcomes between the two groups. Eight patients accepting DHZCP developed mild diarrhea during the first week, which subsequently resolved on its own.

Conclusion

DHZCP could improve the pulmonary function, the quality of life, and the exercise capacity of silicosis patients.

A periodic review of chemical and pharmacological profiles of Tubiechong as insect Chinese medicine

Tubiechong, in Chinese medicine, denotes the dried female insects of Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker (ESW) or Polyphaga plancyi Bolivar (PPB). As a traditional insect-type, in medicine, it has been historically utilized to treat bruises, fractures, amenorrhea, postpartum blood stasis, lumps and relieving pain. We herein have performed a systematic survey involving the chemical and biological studies in the past decades to reveal the value of such insect resources for their development and clinical utilization. Chemical studies indicated that Tubiechong generated many active compounds, including proteins, amino acids, peptides, fatty acids, alkaloids, nucleosides, polysaccharides, fat-soluble vitamins and mineral elements. Tubiechong or its extract has a wide range of activities including anticoagulation and anti-thrombosis, anti-tumor, antioxidant, immune regulation, blood lipid regulation and hepatoprotection. Finally, a periodic mini-review was conducted to summarize such chemical and pharmacological profiles of Tubiechong medicine. The active peptides in Tubiechong are majorly focused in this review and introduced as one important aspect since there is much literature and huge investigative interest in it. Traditional medical use of the insect was also stressed in this review associating with its disease-eliminating actions by promoting blood circulation or eliminating tissue-swelling pains, which might play important roles in anticancer practices or investigation. In accordance with the modern pharmacological progress, Tubiechong and its extracts indeed exerted antitumor actions through multiple pathways, such as interfering with tumor biological behaviors (growth, apoptosis, invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis), and regulating host immune function. To some extent, this knowledge would provide a basis for further research and application of Tubiechong medicine.

Novel Pheretima guillelmi-derived antithrombotic protein DPf3: Identification, characterization, in vitro evaluation and antithrombotic mechanisms investigation

In this study, the antithrombotic protein, named DPf3, was purified from Pheretima guillelmi by ion-exchange chromatography. The protein pattern of DPf3 was mainly at 26-34 kDa; its two main proteins, DPf3 ID NO.1 and NO.2, were detected to be 36,121.745 Da and 24,485.004 Da consisting of 329 and 241 amino acids, respectively; the full covered protein sequences were consistent with Ac44553_g1_i1_1 and Dc43026_g1_i1_2 in our previous constructed P. guillelmi local database. The secondary structure of DPf3 is the mixture of α-helix (0.19), β-sheet (0.30) and random coil (0.51). DPf3 was predicted to possess a direct effect on fibrin, fibrinogen and plasminogen by protein-protein docking analysis, which was further confirmed by in vitro and ex vivo study. DPf3 was determined to possess antithrombotic ability by showing outstanding direct-hydrolysis ability on fibrin, fibrinogen and blood clot, and slight plasminogen activation activity. DPf3 could significantly prolong APTT and decrease fibrinogen content, indicating that DPf3 exerted antithrombotic activity via the intrinsic and/or common pathway, and the third coagulation phase. By this approach, the functional protein DPf3 was fully revealed and found to confer excellent anticoagulant and thrombolytic activity, and could be developed into a promising antithrombotic agent.

Isolation and Optimal Fermentation Condition of the Bacillus subtilis Subsp. natto Strain WTC016 for Nattokinase Production

Nattokinase is a serine protease in the subtilisin family which is produced by Bacillus subtilis subsp. natto and exhibits vigorous fibrinolytic activity that has been suggested to be able to prevent and treat thromboembolic diseases. In this study, WTC016, a spore-forming and rod-shaped bacterium with fibrinolytic activity was successfully isolated from soil, which was identified as Bacillus subtilis subsp. natto based on morphological and physiological tests, and phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA and gyrA. According to the growth curve of WTC016, the nattokinase production reached the highest amount in the stationary phase. To optimize the liquid fermentation condition for nattokinase yield of WTC016, further optimal tests of four factors, including the temperature, pH, inoculum size, and loading volume, followed by orthogonal test of all these factors, was performed. The optimal fermentation conditions were determined as 30 °C, 7.0 pH, 2% inoculum size, and 60 mL of loading volume in 250 mL conical flask, which indicates the highest nattokinase production of 3284 ± 58 IU/mL while fermented for 26 h. This work laid the foundation for producing nattokinase using Bacillus subtilis subsp. natto WTC016.

The Immuno-Enhancement Effects of Tubiechong (Eupolyphaga sinensis) Lyophilized Powder in Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppressed Mice

Tubiechong (Eupolyphaga sinensis) is an important material used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). However, the immunoregulation effects of E. sinensis Lyophilized Powder (ESL) are unclear. The in vivo study thus designed to elucidate the immuno-enhancement effects of ESL in immunosuppressed mice induced by cyclophosphamide (CTX). Mice were treated with three doses of ESL (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg). Compared with model group, ESL notably increased the immune organ index, mononuclear macrophages function and the level of nature killer cell (NK) (p < 0.05 or p < 0.01), delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) was also improved (p < 0.05). The level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) were enhanced (p < 0.05), while malonyldialdehyde (MDA) and nitrogen monoxide (NO) were reduced (p < 0.05 or p < 0.01). Meanwhile, cluster determinant (CD)3⁺ T cell, CD4⁺ T cell and CD4⁺/CD8⁺ ratio were increased (p < 0.01). The cytokines secretion such as interleukin (IL)-2 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) were notably increased (p < 0.05 or p < 0.01), and IL-6 and IL-16 were also enhanced (p < 0.05). Furthermore, ESL significantly inhibited the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), down-regulated the expression of Bcl-2 associated X protein (Bax), up-regulated the B cell lymphoma-2 protein (Bcl-2) expression and decreased the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio in spleen tissues (p < 0.05). In brief, all these findings suggest that ESL could effectively improve immune functions via modulating oxidative systems and innate immune cells. Abbreviations: TCM: Traditional Chinese Medicine; ESL: Eupolyphaga sinensis Lyophilized Powder; CCl₄: Carbon tetrachloride; ERK: Extracellular regulated protein kinases; CTX: Cyclophosphamide; DTH: Delayed type hypersensitivity; SOD: Superoxide dismutase; CAT: Catalase; MDA: Malonyldialdehyde; NO: Nitrogen monoxide; NK: Nature killer cell; CD: Cluster determinant interleukin; TNF-α: Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; Bax: Bcl-2 associated X protein; Bcl-2: B cell lymphoma-2 protein; Th1: Type-1 helper; Th2: Type-2 helper; FAMEs: Fatty acid methyl esters; DNFB: 2,4 - Dinitrofluorobenzene; ELISA: Enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay; MAPK: Mitogen activated protein kinase; Cyt-c: Cytochrome c; SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids; SDS-PAGE: Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

Cloning and purification of the first termicin-like peptide from the cockroach Eupolyphaga sinensis

Background

Termicin is an antimicrobial peptide with six cysteines forming three disulfide bridges that was firstly isolated from the salivary glands and hemocytes of the termite Pseudacanthotermes spiniger. In contrast to many broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptides, termicin is most active against filamentous fungi. Although more than one hundred complementary DNAs (cDNAs) encoding termicin-like peptides have been reported to date, all these termicin-like peptides were obtained from Isoptera insects.

Methods

The cDNA was cloned by combination of cDNA library construction kit and DNA sequencing. The polypeptide was purified by gel filtration and reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Its amino acid sequence was determined by Edman degradation and mass spectrometry. Antimicrobial activity was tested against several bacterial and fungal strains. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined by microdilution tests.

Results

A novel termicin-like peptide with primary structure ACDFQQCWVTCQRQYSINFISARCNGDSCVCTFRT was purified from extracts of the cockroach Eupolyphaga sinensis (Insecta: Blattodea). The cDNA encoding Es-termicin was cloned by cDNA library screening. This cDNA encoded a 60 amino acid precursor which included a 25 amino acid signal peptide. Amino acid sequence deduced from the cDNA matched well with the result of protein Edman degradation. Susceptibility test indicated that Es-termicin showed strong ability to kill fungi with a MIC of 25 μg/mL against Candida albicans ATCC 90028. It only showed limited potency to affect the growth of Gram-positive bacteria with a MIC of 200 μg/mL against Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212. It was inactive against gram-negative bacteria at the highest concentration tested (400 μg/mL). Es-termicin showed high sequence similarity with termicins from many species of termites (Insecta: Isoptera).

Conclusions

This is the first report of a termicin-like peptide isolated from E. sinensis that belongs to the insect order Blattodea. Our results demonstrate the diversity of termicin-like peptides, as well as antimicrobial peptides in insects.

Anticoagulant activity of crude extract of Holotrichia diomphalia larvae

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Holotrichia diomphalia larvae are one classical folk medicinal material in East Asia which has clinically been used to promote blood circulation and dispel blood stasis for several hundred years.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The anticoagulant activity of crude extract of H. diomphalia larvae (CEHDL) in vitro and in vivo was evaluated to explore its mechanism as antithrombotic medicine.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of CEHDL on plasma recalcification time, platelet aggregation, bleeding time, hydrolysis of fibrinogen and fibrin were measured with normal human plasma, plasma-rich platelet, transected mouse tails and bovine fibrinogen; the anti-thrombosis activities of CEHDL in vitro and in vivo were analyzed with clots lysis assay and carrageenan-induced mouse tail thrombosis model.

RESULTS

CEHDL was found to contain large numbers of proteins and could inhibit blood coagulation and platelet aggregation in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, CEHDL preferentially cleaved α- and β-chains followed by γ-chains of fibrinogen. Besides, CEHDL could directly degrade fibrin rather than activate plasminogen. It has been noted that fibrinogenolytic activity of CEHDL could be unaffected by metal ions such as Mg(2+), Ca(2+), Zn(2+), Fe(2+), Fe(3+), Cu(2+) and buffers with pH 3-10. Moreover, protease inhibitors like TPSI, aprotinin, leupetin, PMSF, DTT and EDTA only slightly or not inhibited fibrinogenolytic activity of CEHDL. However, CEHDL could be completely inactivated at 75°C and 100°C. In addition, CEHDL exhibited anti-thrombosis activities in both blood clot lysis assay and carrageenan-induced thrombosis model.

CONCLUSION

CEHDL possessed potent anticoagulant activity and several fibrin(ogen)olytic agents from H. diomphalia larvae were responsible for its antithrombotic effect as medicine.

Undariase, a direct-acting fibrin(ogen)olytic enzyme from Undaria pinnatifida, inhibits thrombosis in vivo and exhibits in vitro thrombolytic properties

A direct-acting fibrinolytic serine protease named undariase possessing anticoagulant and antiplatelet properties was purified from Undaria pinnatifida. Undariase showed a molecular weight of 50 kDa by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and mass spectrometry. It displayed a strong fibrin zymogram lysis band corresponding to the same molecular mass. The N-terminal sequence of undariase, LTATTCEELAAAPTD, does not match with any known fibrinolytic enzyme. The enzyme was stable and active at high temperatures (35-70 °C). The fibrinolytic activity of undariase was strongly inhibited by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) and 4-(amidinophenyl) methanesulfonyl fluoride (APMSF). The K m and V max values for substrate S-2251 were determined as 6.15 mM and 90.91 mM/min/ml, respectively. Undariase resulted in clot lysis by directly cleaving α and β chains of fibrin. Similarly, it preferentially acted on the Aα chain of fibrinogen followed by cleavage of the Bβ chain. It significantly prolonged the PFA-100 closure times of citrated whole human blood. In addition, undariase delayed the coagulation time and increased activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), prothrombin time (PT), and thrombin time (TT). Undariase exerted a significant protective effect against collagen plus epinephrine-induced pulmonary thromboembolism in mice. It prevented carrageenan-induced thrombus formation in the tail of mice. It also resulted in prolongation of APTT ex vivo. In conclusion, these results suggested a therapeutic potential of undariase for thrombosis.

Eupolyphaga sinensis walker displays inhibition on hepatocellular carcinoma through regulating cell growth and metastasis signaling

Tumor growth and metastasis are responsible for most cancer patients' deaths. Here, we report that eupolyphaga sinensis walker has an essential role in resisting hepatocellular carcinoma growth and metastasis. Compared with proliferation, colony formation, transwell assay and transplantable tumor in nude mouse in vitro and vivo, eupolyphaga sinensis walker extract (ESWE) showed good inhibition on the SMMC-7721 cell growth and metastasis. Using genome-wide microarray analysis, we found the down-regulated growth and metastasis factors, and selected down-regulated genes were confirmed by real-time PCR. Knockdown of a checkpoint PKCβ by siRNA significantly attenuated tumor inhibition and metastasis effects of ESWE. Moreover, our results indicate ESWE inhibits HCC growth by not only downregulating the signaling of PKCβ, Akt, m-TOR, Erk1/2, MEK-2, Raf and JNK-1, but also increasing cyclin D1 protein levels and decreasing amount of cyclin E, cyclin B1 and cdc2 of the cycle proteins. At the same time, ESWE reduced MMP2, MMP9 and CXCR4, PLG, NFκB and P53 activities. Overall, our studies demonstrate that ESWE is a key factor in growth and metastasis signaling inhibitor targeting the PKC, AKT, MAPK signaling and related metastasis signaling, having potential in cancer therapy.

Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker inhibits human chronic myeloid leukemia cell K562 growth by inducing G2-M phase cell cycle arrest and targeting EGFR signaling pathway and in S180 tumor-bearing mice

Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker is not only used as a food to enhance immunity, but is used as a traditional Chinese medicine and is known as the "preferred drug to regulate blood flow". Previous studies have reported its potential biological activities including anticoagulation, antithrombotic, liver protective effect and antitumor effects. Our results indicated that E. sinensis Walker 70% ethanol extract exhibited anti-tumor effects on S180 (murine sarcoma cell line) cells implanted mice. It effectively inhibited K562 (human chronic myeloid leukemia cell line) cells proliferation and induced G(2)-M phase arrest accompanying through up-regulation of cyclin B1, cdc2 and down-regulation of cyclin D1, cyclin E1, cdc25c and p53. In addition, it inhibited EGF secretion and EGFR kinase activity. Western blotting analysis indicated that it also inhibited the phosphorylation EGFR and activation of its downstream signaling molecules AKT and ERK. These results suggested that the antitumor mechanism of E. sinensis Walker involved altering the cell cycle and inhibiting EGFR phosphorylation in the EGFR signaling pathway.

Gene expression divergence between malaria vector sibling species Anopheles gambiae and An. coluzzii from rural and urban Yaoundé Cameroon

Divergent selection based on aquatic larval ecology is a likely factor in the recent isolation of two broadly sympatric and morphologically identical African mosquito species, the malaria vectors Anopheles gambiae and An. coluzzii. Population-based genome scans have revealed numerous candidate regions of recent positive selection, but have provided few clues as to the genetic mechanisms underlying behavioural and physiological divergence between the two species, phenotypes which themselves remain obscure. To uncover possible genetic mechanisms, we compared global transcriptional profiles of natural and experimental populations using gene-based microarrays. Larvae were sampled as second and fourth instars from natural populations in and around the city of Yaoundé, capital of Cameroon, where the two species segregate along a gradient of urbanization. Functional enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes revealed that An. coluzzii--the species that breeds in more stable, biotically complex and potentially polluted urban water bodies--overexpresses genes implicated in detoxification and immunity relative to An. gambiae, which breeds in more ephemeral and relatively depauperate pools and puddles in suburbs and rural areas. Moreover, our data suggest that such overexpression by An. coluzzii is not a transient result of induction by xenobiotics in the larval habitat, but an inherent and presumably adaptive response to repeatedly encountered environmental stressors. Finally, we find no significant overlap between the differentially expressed loci and previously identified genomic regions of recent positive selection, suggesting that transcriptome divergence is regulated by trans-acting factors rather than cis-acting elements.

Antithrombotic effect of ligustrazine hydrochloride injection on the model of induced arteriovenous shunt thrombosis

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study is to optimize the effective dose of heparin and ligustrazine hydrochloride injection (LHI) for drug combination.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The animal clinical study of LHI was performed by the rat's model of induced arteriovenous shunt thrombosis. Experimental animals were grouped into several groups and separately treated with both LHI (20, 40, 80 mg/kg, i.p.) and heparin (60, 55, and 50 U/kg; 5000 U/ml; Sigma, i.v). The study had used thrombus weight, protein concentration in thrombus homogenate, inhibition rate of thrombosis, and plasma anti-thrombin activity as indications.

RESULTS

The group combination (50, 80) got the result of 100% antithrombotic activity with 0 ± 0 mg of thrombus weight, 14 ± 3 μg/ml of protein concentration in thrombus homogenate and 1.5 ± 0.04 U/ml of plasma anti-thrombin activity. Its anti-thrombotic effect was much better than individual groups treated with LHI in a dose of 0 mg/kg and group of combination (0, 80) (P < 0.05) while antithrombotic effect of 55 and 60 U/kg heparin alone was only 37-58%. Therefore, the group of combination (50, 80) was optimal for 100% antithrombotic activity.

CONCLUSION

Optimal combined doses of LHI and heparin preventing blood coagulation were determined and the results were available. It may give some hint for the further clinical application on human.

Thrombolytic, anticoagulant and antiplatelet activities of codiase, a bi-functional fibrinolytic enzyme from Codium fragile

Thrombosis is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. Thrombolytic agents are important for both the prevention and treatment of thrombosis. In this study, codiase, a new bi-functional fibrinolytic serine protease having thrombolytic, anticoagulant, and antiplatelet activities was purified from marine green alga, Codium fragile. The molecular weight of the enzyme was estimated to be 48.9 kDa by SDS-PAGE, and mass spectrometry. Fibrin zymography analysis showed an active band with similar molecular weight. The N-terminal sequence was found to be APKASTDQTLPL, which is different from that of other known fibrinolytic enzymes. Codiase displayed maximum activity at 30 °C and pH 6.0, and the activity was inhibited by Zn(2+) and Fe(2+). Moreover, the enzyme activity was strongly inhibited by serine protease inhibitor such as PMSF. Codiase exhibited high specificity for the substrate S-2288, and the Km and Vmax values for this substrate were found to be 0.24 mM and 79 U/ml respectively. Fibrin plate assays revealed that it was able to hydrolyze fibrin clot either directly or by activation of plasminogen. Codiase effectively hydrolyzed fibrin and fibrinogen, preferentially degrading α- and Aα chains, followed by γ-γ, and γ-chains. However, it provoked slower degradation of Bβ and β-chains. The structural change of fibrin clot and fibrinogen by codiase was also detected by FTIR-ATR spectroscopy analysis. In vitro and in vivo studies revealed that codiase reduces thrombosis in concentration-dependent manner. Codiase was found to prolong activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), and prothrombin time (PT). PFA-100 studies showed that codiase prolonged the closure time (CT) of citrated whole human blood. These favorable antithrombotic profiles together with its anticoagulant and platelet disaggregation properties, and lack of toxicity to mice and NIH-3T3 cells, make it a potential agent for thrombolytic therapy.

Proteomics and transcriptome analysis coupled with pharmacological test reveals the diversity of anti-thrombosis proteins from the medicinal insect, Eupolyphaga sinensis

The insect of Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker has been used as traditional anti-thrombosis medicine without bleeding risk for several hundreds years in eastern countries. Our previous work has identified a bi-functional anti-thrombosis protein containing both direct-acting fibrin(ogen)olytic and plasminogen-activating activities from the insect. By proteomics and transcriptome analysis, 105 serine proteases belonging to four families were identified from the ground beetle, E. sinensis and the classification is for serine proteases of this organism. Pharmacological test indicated that 5 (eupolytin 1-5) of them have the abilities to hydrolyze fibrin(ogen) and/or activate plasminogen. The current work revealed the extreme diversity of anti-thrombosis components in E. sinensis and anti-thrombosis molecular mechanisms of the traditional medicinal insect, and provided many templates for the development of new thrombolytic agents. Especially, these proteins, which contain both plasmin- and PA (plasminogen-activating)-like activities, are excellent candidates for anti-thrombosis medicines.

Antitumor effects and chemical compositions of Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker ethanol extract

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker popularly known as "preferred drug to regulate blood flow" are traditionally used in folk medicine in the treatment of ecchymoma, posttraumatic wound, hepatic fibrosis and tumor.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To characterize chemical compositions and to evaluate the antitumor and immunomodulatory of Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker ethanol extract (ESEE) in hepatocarcinoma H(22) bearing mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ESEE was obtained by ethanol reflux extraction and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) after methylation. ICR mice were treated with ESEE for 14 consecutive days at doses of 31mg/kg (low-dose), 62mg/kg (mid-dose) and 124mg/kg (high-dose) after H(22) tumor cells were implanted. At the end of the experiments, the tumor weight of each mouse was measured. Levels of serum TNF-α and IFN-γ was assayed by ELISA. Protein expressions of Bax, Bcl-2 and caspases-3 were detected by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Chemical analysis revealed the presence of 6 components that account for 97.55% of fatty acids, indicating the occurrence of saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Oral administration of ESEE could inhibit tumor growth, promote Th1 type cytokine productions (TNF-α and IFN-γ) and induce apoptosis of hepatocarcinoma via increase of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and activation of caspases-3. Oral administration of ESEE in a dosage of 6.2g/kg did not lead to toxic effects in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

ESEE was effective in inhibiting tumor growth in vivo and could also serve as immunoadjuvant for tumor therapy.