1
|
RET-independent signaling by GDNF ligands and GFRα receptors. Cell Tissue Res 2020; 382:71-82. [PMID: 32737575 PMCID: PMC7529620 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-020-03261-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The discovery in the late 1990s of the partnership between the RET receptor tyrosine kinase and the GFRα family of GPI-anchored co-receptors as mediators of the effects of GDNF family ligands galvanized the field of neurotrophic factors, firmly establishing a new molecular framework besides the ubiquitous neurotrophins. Soon after, however, it was realized that many neurons and brain areas expressed GFRα receptors without expressing RET. These observations led to the formulation of two new concepts in GDNF family signaling, namely, the non-cell-autonomous functions of GFRα molecules, so-called trans signaling, as well as cell-autonomous functions mediated by signaling receptors distinct from RET, which became known as RET-independent signaling. To date, the best studied RET-independent signaling pathway for GDNF family ligands involves the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM and its association with GFRα co-receptors. Among the many functions attributed to this signaling system are neuronal migration, neurite outgrowth, dendrite branching, spine formation, and synaptogenesis. This review summarizes our current understanding of this and other mechanisms of RET-independent signaling by GDNF family ligands and GFRα receptors, as well as their physiological importance.
Collapse
|
2
|
Hoyer N, Zielke P, Hu C, Petersen M, Sauter K, Scharrenberg R, Peng Y, Kim CC, Han C, Parrish JZ, Soba P. Ret and Substrate-Derived TGF-β Maverick Regulate Space-Filling Dendrite Growth in Drosophila Sensory Neurons. Cell Rep 2020; 24:2261-2272.e5. [PMID: 30157422 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.07.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 06/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendrite morphogenesis is a highly regulated process that gives rise to stereotyped receptive fields, which are required for proper neuronal connectivity and function. Specific classes of neurons, including Drosophila class IV dendritic arborization (C4da) neurons, also feature complete space-filling growth of dendrites. In this system, we have identified the substrate-derived TGF-β ligand maverick (mav) as a developmental signal promoting space-filling growth through the neuronal Ret receptor. Both are necessary for radial spreading of C4da neuron dendrites, and Ret is required for neuronal uptake of Mav. Moreover, local changes in Mav levels result in directed dendritic growth toward regions with higher ligand availability. Our results suggest that Mav acts as a substrate-derived secreted signal promoting dendrite growth within not-yet-covered areas of the receptive field to ensure space-filling dendritic growth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nina Hoyer
- Research Group Neuronal Patterning and Connectivity, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Philip Zielke
- Research Group Neuronal Patterning and Connectivity, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Chun Hu
- Research Group Neuronal Patterning and Connectivity, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Meike Petersen
- Research Group Neuronal Patterning and Connectivity, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Kathrin Sauter
- Research Group Neuronal Patterning and Connectivity, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Robin Scharrenberg
- Research Group Neuronal Development, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Yun Peng
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | | | - Chun Han
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Jay Z Parrish
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Peter Soba
- Research Group Neuronal Patterning and Connectivity, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Myers L, Perera H, Alvarado MG, Kidd T. The Drosophila Ret gene functions in the stomatogastric nervous system with the Maverick TGFβ ligand and the Gfrl co-receptor. Development 2018; 145:dev.157446. [PMID: 29361562 DOI: 10.1242/dev.157446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The RET receptor tyrosine kinase is crucial for the development of the enteric nervous system (ENS), acting as a receptor for Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) via GFR co-receptors. Drosophila has a well-conserved RET homolog (Ret) that has been proposed to function independently of the Gfr-like co-receptor (Gfrl). We find that Ret is required for development of the stomatogastric (enteric) nervous system in both embryos and larvae, and its loss results in feeding defects. Live imaging analysis suggests that peristaltic waves are initiated but not propagated in mutant midguts. Examination of axons innervating the midgut reveals increased branching but the area covered by the branches is decreased. This phenotype can be rescued by Ret expression. Additionally, Gfrl shares the same ENS and feeding defects, suggesting that Ret and Gfrl might function together via a common ligand. We identified the TGFβ family member Maverick (Mav) as a ligand for Gfrl and a Mav chromosomal deficiency displayed similar embryonic ENS defects. Our results suggest that the Ret and Gfrl families co-evolved before the separation of invertebrate and vertebrate lineages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Logan Myers
- Department of Biology/ms 314, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Hiran Perera
- Department of Biology/ms 314, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | | | - Thomas Kidd
- Department of Biology/ms 314, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Perea D, Guiu J, Hudry B, Konstantinidou C, Milona A, Hadjieconomou D, Carroll T, Hoyer N, Natarajan D, Kallijärvi J, Walker JA, Soba P, Thapar N, Burns AJ, Jensen KB, Miguel-Aliaga I. Ret receptor tyrosine kinase sustains proliferation and tissue maturation in intestinal epithelia. EMBO J 2017; 36:3029-3045. [PMID: 28899900 PMCID: PMC5641678 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201696247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Expression of the Ret receptor tyrosine kinase is a defining feature of enteric neurons. Its importance is underscored by the effects of its mutation in Hirschsprung disease, leading to absence of gut innervation and severe gastrointestinal symptoms. We report a new and physiologically significant site of Ret expression in the intestine: the intestinal epithelium. Experiments in Drosophila indicate that Ret is expressed both by enteric neurons and adult intestinal epithelial progenitors, which require Ret to sustain their proliferation. Mechanistically, Ret is engaged in a positive feedback loop with Wnt/Wingless signalling, modulated by Src and Fak kinases. We find that Ret is also expressed by the developing intestinal epithelium of mice, where its expression is maintained into the adult stage in a subset of enteroendocrine/enterochromaffin cells. Mouse organoid experiments point to an intrinsic role for Ret in promoting epithelial maturation and regulating Wnt signalling. Our findings reveal evolutionary conservation of the positive Ret/Wnt signalling feedback in both developmental and homeostatic contexts. They also suggest an epithelial contribution to Ret loss‐of‐function disorders such as Hirschsprung disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Perea
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Jordi Guiu
- BRIC-Biotech Research and Innovation Centre, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Bruno Hudry
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | - Alexandra Milona
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Dafni Hadjieconomou
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas Carroll
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Nina Hoyer
- Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Dipa Natarajan
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Jukka Kallijärvi
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - James A Walker
- Center for Human Genetic Research, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Peter Soba
- Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Nikhil Thapar
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Alan J Burns
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Kim B Jensen
- BRIC-Biotech Research and Innovation Centre, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark.,The Danish Stem Cell Center (Danstem), Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Irene Miguel-Aliaga
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Saarenpää T, Kogan K, Sidorova Y, Mahato AK, Tascón I, Kaljunen H, Yu L, Kallijärvi J, Jurvansuu J, Saarma M, Goldman A. Zebrafish GDNF and its co-receptor GFRα1 activate the human RET receptor and promote the survival of dopaminergic neurons in vitro. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0176166. [PMID: 28467503 PMCID: PMC5415192 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a ligand that activates, through co-receptor GDNF family receptor alpha-1 (GFRα1) and receptor tyrosine kinase “RET”, several signaling pathways crucial in the development and sustainment of multiple neuronal populations. We decided to study whether non-mammalian orthologs of these three proteins have conserved their function: can they activate the human counterparts? Using the baculovirus expression system, we expressed and purified Danio rerio RET, and its binding partners GFRα1 and GDNF, and Drosophila melanogaster RET and two isoforms of co-receptor GDNF receptor-like. Our results report high-level insect cell expression of post-translationally modified and dimerized zebrafish RET and its binding partners. We also found that zebrafish GFRα1 and GDNF are comparably active as mammalian cell-produced ones. We also report the first measurements of the affinity of the complex to RET in solution: at least for zebrafish, the Kd for GFRα1-GDNF binding RET is 5.9 μM. Surprisingly, we also found that zebrafish GDNF as well as zebrafish GFRα1 robustly activated human RET signaling and promoted the survival of cultured mouse dopaminergic neurons with comparable efficiency to mammalian GDNF, unlike E. coli-produced human proteins. These results contradict previous studies suggesting that mammalian GFRα1 and GDNF cannot bind and activate non-mammalian RET and vice versa.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tuulia Saarenpää
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Konstantin Kogan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Yulia Sidorova
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Arun Kumar Mahato
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Igor Tascón
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Heidi Kaljunen
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Liying Yu
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jukka Kallijärvi
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jaana Jurvansuu
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mart Saarma
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Adrian Goldman
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Akhund-Zade J, Bergland AO, Crowe SO, Unckless RL. The Genetic Basis of Natural Variation in Drosophila (Diptera: Drosophilidae) Virgin Egg Retention. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2017; 17:iew094. [PMID: 28042107 PMCID: PMC5270406 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iew094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Drosophila melanogaster is able to thrive in harsh northern climates through adaptations in life-history traits and physiological mechanisms that allow for survival through the winter. We examined the genetic basis of natural variation in one such trait, female virgin egg retention, which was previously shown to vary clinally and seasonally. To further our understanding of the genetic basis and evolution of virgin egg retention, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using the previously sequenced Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP) mapping population. We found 29 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with virgin egg retention and assayed 6 available mutant lines, each harboring a mutation in a candidate gene, for effects on egg retention time. We found that four out of the six mutant lines had defects in egg retention time as compared with the respective controls: mun, T48, Mes-4, and Klp67A Surprisingly, none of these genes has a recognized role in ovulation control, but three of the four genes have known effects on fertility or have high expression in the ovaries. We also found that the SNP set associated with egg retention time was enriched for clinal SNPs. The majority of clinal SNPs had alleles associated with longer egg retention present at higher frequencies in higher latitudes. Our results support previous studies that show higher frequency of long retention times at higher latitude, providing evidence for the adaptive value of virgin egg-retention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jamilla Akhund-Zade
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, 371 Serra Street, Palo Alto, CA 94305
- Department of Organismal and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Northwest Labs 248, Cambridge, MA 02138
| | - Alan O Bergland
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, 371 Serra Street, Palo Alto, CA 94305
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, 063A Gilmer Hall, Charlottesville, VA 22903
| | - Sarah O Crowe
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, 3125 Comstock Hall, Ithaca, 14853 NY
| | - Robert L Unckless
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, 3125 Comstock Hall, Ithaca, 14853 NY
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, 4055 Haworth Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kolosov MS, Komandirov MA, Terent’ev VV, Shitov AV, Kiroy RI, Kurayan OE. Immunological study of freshwater crayfish nervous tissue for receptors for neurotrophins and ciliary neurotrophic factor. NEUROCHEM J+ 2016. [DOI: 10.1134/s1819712416030089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
8
|
Hernández K, Myers LG, Bowser M, Kidd T. Genetic Tools for the Analysis of Drosophila Stomatogastric Nervous System Development. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0128290. [PMID: 26053861 PMCID: PMC4460011 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The Drosophila stomatogastric nervous system (SNS) is a compact collection of neurons that arises from the migration of neural precursors. Here we describe genetic tools allowing functional analysis of the SNS during the migratory phase of development. We constructed GAL4 lines driven by fragments of the Ret promoter, which yielded expression in a subset of migrating neural SNS precursors and also included a distinct set of midgut associated cells. Screening of additional GAL4 lines driven by fragments of the Gfrl/Munin, forkhead, twist and goosecoid (Gsc) promoters identified a Gsc fragment with expression from initial selection of SNS precursors until the end of embryogenesis. Inhibition of EGFR signaling using three identified lines disrupted the correct patterning of the frontal and recurrent nerves. To manipulate the environment traveled by SNS precursors, a FasII-GAL4 line with strong expression throughout the entire intestinal tract was identified. The transgenic lines described offer the ability to specifically manipulate the migration of SNS precursors and will allow the modeling and in-depth analysis of neuronal migration in ENS disorders such as Hirschsprung’s disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karla Hernández
- Biology/MS 314, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, United States of America
| | - Logan G. Myers
- Biology/MS 314, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, United States of America
| | - Micah Bowser
- Biology/MS 314, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, United States of America
| | - Thomas Kidd
- Biology/MS 314, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Soba P, Han C, Zheng Y, Perea D, Miguel-Aliaga I, Jan LY, Jan YN. The Ret receptor regulates sensory neuron dendrite growth and integrin mediated adhesion. eLife 2015; 4. [PMID: 25764303 PMCID: PMC4391025 DOI: 10.7554/elife.05491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons develop highly stereotyped receptive fields by coordinated growth of their dendrites. Although cell surface cues play a major role in this process, few dendrite specific signals have been identified to date. We conducted an in vivo RNAi screen in Drosophila class IV dendritic arborization (C4da) neurons and identified the conserved Ret receptor, known to play a role in axon guidance, as an important regulator of dendrite development. The loss of Ret results in severe dendrite defects due to loss of extracellular matrix adhesion, thus impairing growth within a 2D plane. We provide evidence that Ret interacts with integrins to regulate dendrite adhesion via rac1. In addition, Ret is required for dendrite stability and normal F-actin distribution suggesting it has an essential role in dendrite maintenance. We propose novel functions for Ret as a regulator in dendrite patterning and adhesion distinct from its role in axon guidance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Soba
- Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Chun Han
- Department of Physiology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Yi Zheng
- Department of Physiology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Daniel Perea
- Gut Signalling and Metabolism Group, MRC Clinical Sciences Centre, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Irene Miguel-Aliaga
- Gut Signalling and Metabolism Group, MRC Clinical Sciences Centre, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lily Yeh Jan
- Department of Physiology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Yuh Nung Jan
- Department of Physiology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Rosti K, Goldman A, Kajander T. Solution structure and biophysical characterization of the multifaceted signalling effector protein growth arrest specific-1. BMC BIOCHEMISTRY 2015; 16:8. [PMID: 25888394 PMCID: PMC4349606 DOI: 10.1186/s12858-015-0037-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Background The protein growth arrest specific-1 (GAS1) was discovered based on its ability to stop the cell cycle. During development it is involved in embryonic patterning, inhibits cell proliferation and mediates cell death, and has therefore been considered as a tumor suppressor. GAS1 is known to signal through two different cell membrane receptors: Rearranged during transformation (RET), and the sonic hedgehog receptor Patched-1. Sonic Hedgehog signalling is important in stem cell renewal and RET mediated signalling in neuronal survival. Disorders in both sonic hedgehog and RET signalling are connected to cancer progression. The neuroprotective effect of RET is controlled by glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor family ligands and glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor receptor alphas (GFRαs). Human Growth arrest specific-1 is a distant homolog of the GFRαs. Results We have produced and purified recombinant human GAS1 protein, and confirmed that GAS1 is a monomer in solution by static light scattering and small angle X-ray scattering analysis. The low resolution solution structure reveals that GAS1 is more elongated and flexible than the GFRαs, and the homology modelling of the individual domains show that they differ from GFRαs by lacking the amino acids for neurotrophic factor binding. In addition, GAS1 has an extended loop in the N-terminal domain that is conserved in vertebrates after the divergence of fishes and amphibians. Conclusions We conclude that GAS1 most likely differs from GFRαs functionally, based on comparative structural analysis, while it is able to bind the extracellular part of RET in a neurotrophic factor independent manner, although with low affinity in solution. Our structural characterization indicates that GAS1 differs from GFRα’s significantly also in its conformation, which probably reflects the functional differences between GAS1 and the GFRαs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katja Rosti
- Institute of Biotechnology, Structural Biology and Biophysics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Adrian Goldman
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK. .,Department of Biosciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Tommi Kajander
- Institute of Biotechnology, Structural Biology and Biophysics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| |
Collapse
|